Exercise of Learner Autonomy in Project-Oriented CALL

%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+2em+5em%3B+text-align%3A+center%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch2%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EExercise+of+Learner+Autonomy+in+Project-Oriented+CALL%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh2%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+4em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cul+style%3D%22list-style-type%3A+none%3B+margin%3A+0em+0em+1em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em+0em+0em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEtsuko+Toyoda%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22mailto%3Aetsuko%40unimelb.edu.au%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Eetsuko%40unimelb.edu.au%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+University+of+Melbourne%2C+Australia%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAbstract%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIncreasingly%2C++the+use+of+modern+technology+is+coupled+with+cooperative+approaches+to++learning.+The+question+is+how+technology+affects+the+exercise+of+learner++autonomy.+By+presenting+evidence+of+critical+incidents+and+learners%27++reactions%2C+this+article+describes+how+technology-related+factors+such+as++computer+literacy+and+beliefs+in+CALL+have+affected+individual++learner%27s+autonomous+learning+in+a+Project-Oriented+Computer+Assisted++Language+Learning+%28PrOCALL%29.+The+findings+suggest+that+technology+can++have+a+positive+impact+on+learner+autonomy+when+learners+have+extensive++experience+with+technology.+However%2C+they+also+suggest+that+it+can+have+a++beneficial+impact+on+autonomy+only+when+learners+perceive+technology+as++a+useful+tool.+The+findings+indicate+that+learners%27+perceptions+vary++largely+according+to+the+level+of+their+computer+literacy+although+the++students%27+perceptions+may+be+modified+through+positive+or+negative++relationships+with+other+students+and+the+teacher.+The+article+concludes++with+three+conditions+necessary+for+successful+autonomous+learning%3A+1%29++accessible+and+reliable+technology%2C+2%29+sufficient+computer+literacy+in++students%2C+and+3%29+good+communication+with+and+support+from+peers.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EKeywords%3A+Learner+autonomy%2C+PrOCALL%2C+cooperative+learning%2C+computer+literacy%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E1+Introduction%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELearner++autonomy+has+been+widely+discussed+in+L2+research+%28Dam+%26amp%3B+Little%2C++1998%3B+Wenden%2C+1998%3B+Macaro%2C+1997%3B+Littlewood%2C+1996%3B+Little%2C+1995%3B++Little%2C+1990%3B+Dam%2C+1990%3B+Holec%2C+1981%29.+There+is+now+considerable++evidence+supporting+the+view+that+cooperative+learning%2C+including++project-oriented+learning%2C+can+lead+to+the+enhancement+of+learner++autonomy+%28Ehrman+%26amp%3B+Dornyei%2C+1998%3B+Dam+%26amp%3B+Little%2C+1998%3B+Johnson++%26amp%3B+Johnson%2C+1998%3B+Dornyei%2C+1997%3B+Macaro%2C+1997%3B+Crabbe%2C+1993%3B+Legutke++%26amp%3B+Thomas%2C+1991%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIncreasingly%2C++the+use+of+modern+technology%2C+such+as+email%2C+the+Internet%2C+HTML++editors%2C+is+coupled+with+cooperative+approaches+to+learning+%28Blin%2C+1999%3B++Ehrman+%26amp%3B+Dornyei%2C1998%3B+Warschauer%2C+1996%2C+1997%3B+Barson+%26amp%3B+Debski%2C++1996%3B+Kelm%2C+1996%29%2C+and+the+positive+effects+of+technology+on+language++learning+in+general+has+been+demonstrated+%28Warschauer%2C+1996%2C+1997%3B++Sandholtz+et+al.%2C+1997%3B+Barson+%26amp%3B+Debski%2C+1996%3B+Tella%2C+1996%2C+Roblyer++et+al.%2C+1988%29.+However%2C+although+modern+technology+is+claimed+to++encourage+students+to+have+positive+interdependence%2C+individual++accountability%2C+and+abundant+interaction+%28Kelm%2C+1996%2C+p.+25%29%2C+a+careful++analysis+of+the+literature+illustrates+how+little+is+known+about+how++technology+affects+the+exercise+of+learner+autonomy.+Why+is+it+that%2C++under+similar+conditions%2C+technology+affects+autonomous+learning+in+ways++that+vary+widely+from+student+to+student%3F+It+is+envisaged+that+the++success+of+autonomous+learning+would+be+greatly+influenced+by+learners%27++computer+literacy+and+their+beliefs+in+technology-incorporated+learning.++This+article+describes+how+these+technology-related+factors+have++affected+individual+learner%27s+autonomous+learning+in+a++technology-incorporated+cooperative+language+learning+environment.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E2+Definition+of+autonomy%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EOriginally%2C++the+concept+of+learner+autonomy+was+a+reaction+against+behaviourism%2C++and+usually+associated+with+the+notion+of+learner-centredness+and+a++vision+of+language+as+a+tool+for+communication+%28Gremmo+%26amp%3B+Riley%2C++1995%29.+It+is+now+generally+defined+as+an+ability+to+take+charge+of+one%27s++own+learning+%28Wenden%2C+1998%3B+Macaro%2C+1997%3B+Littlewood%2C+1996%3B+Little%2C++1995%3B+Dickinson%2C+1995%3B+Victori+%26amp%3B+Lockart%2C+1995%3B+Dam%2C+1990%3B+Holec%2C++1981%29.+While+it+has+been+claimed+that+independence+and+individual++responsibility+are+the+core+notions+of+learner+autonomy%2C+some++researchers+hold+the+view+that+autonomy+also+involves+interdependence++%28Blin%2C+1999%3B+Little%2C+1990%3B+Boud%2C+1981%29.+Responsible+learners+know+that%2C++as+long+as+learning+takes+place+in+social+interactions%2C+learning+in++isolation+is+impossible%2C+and+effective+learning+without+mentors+and+peer++support+is+difficult.+Taking+charge+of+one%27s+own+learning+therefore++inevitably+involves+being+positively+interdependent%2C+particularly+in+a++cooperative+learning+environment.+From+this+perspective%2C+in+this++article%2C+learner+autonomy+is+defined+as+%E2%80%98an+ability+and+willingness+to++learn+both+independently+and+in+cooperation+with+others+as+a+responsible++learner%E2%80%99+.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E3+Background+and+research+questions%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EProject-Oriented++Computer+Assisted+Language+Learning+%28PrOCALL%29+has+been+employed+in+many++places+around+the+world+%28eg.+Blin%2C+1999%3B+Debski+%26amp%3B+Gruba%2C+1999%3B++Warschauer%2C+1997%2C+1996%3B+Barson+%26amp%3B+Debski%2C1996%3B+Barson+et+al.%2C+1993%29.++However%2C+reports+focusing+on+learner+autonomy+in+this+style+of+language++learning+are+still+few.+The+existing+literature%2C+limited+as+it+is%2C++presents+mixed+findings.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EBarson++et+al.+%281993%29+report+on+a+CALL+project+undertaken+by+students+of+French++at+Harvard+University+and+Stanford+University%2C+who+collaboratively++produced+French+language+newspapers+and+videotapes.+They+described+how%2C++at+the+end+of+the+course%2C+students+expressed+deep+satisfaction+at+being++able+to+manage+their+language+learning+in+the+target+language+adopting+a++variety+of+roles%2C+from+manager+to+assistant.+Debski+%26amp%3B+Gruba+%281999%29++conducted+a+university-wide+survey+of+attitudes+towards+CALL+at+the++University+of+Melbourne%2C+which+involved+several+foreign+language++programs.+They+noted+that+the+interviewed+instructors+expressed++reservations+regarding+the+implementation+of+learning+based+on+learner++autonomy%3A+%22Instructors+did+not+think+that+students+would+want+to+be++truly+in+charge+of+their+own+language+studies%22+%28p.+231%29.+Blin+%281999%29++discusses+the+effect+of+learner-learner+interactions+in+a+CMC++environment+on+learner+autonomy%2C+that+was+part+of+a+CALL+project+at++Dublin+City+University%2C+as+students+who+were+about+to+leave+Ireland+for++France+used+a+discussion+list+to+exchange+information+with+their+partner++students+who+had+the+experience+of+residing+and+studying+abroad.+She++described+how+the+correspondence+encouraged+students%2C+who+at+first+were++attentive+passive+contributors%2C+to+bring+their+comments+on+culture+and++language+to+their+language+class%2C+and+discuss+learning+objectives+and++strategies+that+would+help+them+to+benefit+from+their+residence.+None+of++them+however+describes+why+technology+affects+autonomous+learning+in++ways+that+vary+widely+from+student+to+student.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E3.1+Computer+literacy%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ESussex++%281998%29%2C+based+on+his+informal+observations+and+reports+from+colleagues++and+students%2C+suggests+that+unstructured+learning+may+be+successful+for++learners+with+previous+experience+in+learning+on+the+Web%2C+but+that+there++are+potential+and+real+difficulties+for+students+if+they+have+little++experience+with+navigating+the+Internet.+Conceivably%2C+this+is+because++students%27+experience+in+the+use+of+modern+technology+affects+how+they++react+to+technology.+Students+with+extensive+experience+with+technology++may+find+it+easy+to+manage+their+learning+whereas+technologically++less-experienced+students+may+be+bewildered+by+new+technological+tools.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E3.2+Beliefs+in+technology+incorporated+learning%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EA++number+of+recent+articles+have+stressed+the+central+role+played+in++determining+learning+behaviour+by+the+learners%27+beliefs+and++representations+about+language+and+language+learning+%28Gremmo+%26amp%3B++Riley%2C+1995%2C+p.+158%29.+It+is+very+likely+that+learners%27+beliefs+in++technology+incorporated+learning+affect+their+attitude+and+learning++behaviours+in+PrOCALL.+Their+beliefs+have+been+formed+from+their++positive+or+negative+experience+with+technology+in+the+past.+As++Cotterall+%281995%29+has+stated%2C+the+beliefs+that+learners+hold+may+either++contribute+to+or+impede+the+development+of+their+potential+for+autonomy++%28p.196%29.+Students+who+have+positive+beliefs+in+technology+may%2C+as+they++have+trust+in+technological+tools%2C+be+able+to+make+full+use+of+the+tools++to+support+their+autonomous+learning.+On+the+other+hand%2C+students+with++negative+beliefs+in+technology-incorporated+learning+may+not+be+willing++to+use+the+tools+for+their+learning+from+a+fear+of+failure.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+following+sections+will+look+into+these+hypotheses.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E4+the+project%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EA++large-scale+implementation+of+PrOCALL+project+was+conducted+at+the++University+of+Melbourne+in+two+second+semesters+%2812+weeks+each%29+over+the++years+1998+-+1999+under+the+supervision+of+the+project+leader+%28see++Debski%2C+2000%29.+The+PrOCALL+involved+11+languages+%281+Chinese%2C+2+German%2C+2++Indonesian%2C+3+Japanese%2C+1+Russian+and+2+ESL+classes%29+and+over+250++students+with+diversity+of+language+levels+and+10+teachers+from++different+cultural+backgrounds.+The+aim+of+the+PrOCALL+project+was+to++transform+existing+language+classes+into+classes+incorporating++project-oriented+CALL+while+each+class+was+aiming+to+improving+students%27++skills+using+multimedia+as+tools.+In+class%2C+students+in+groups+were++assigned+to+create+their+own+web+pages+which+involved+on-line+research%2C++computer-mediated+communication+and+web-publishing.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEach++language+department+offered+a+slightly+different+class+as+it+reflected++the+attitude%2C+motivation%2C+and+skill+of+each+participating+teacher++%28Debski%2C+2000%29.+Despite+this+difference+among+the+classes%2C+all+classes++generally+followed+a+similar+path+as+illustrated+below.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++the+first+session+of+a+course%2C+participant+students+were+introduced+to++the+background+of+the+Project.+A+timetable+and+assessments+were++negotiated+with+them.+The+students+then+formed+groups+and+each+group++decided+on+a+topic.+From+the+second+session%2C+the+students+searched+for++various+Web+sites+that+were+related+to+their+topic%2C+and+investigated++other+sources+outside+of+the+class.+In+some+classes%2C+students+had+e-mail++correspondence+with+their+partners+overseas%2C+and+wrote+messages+on+an++electronic+bulletin+board%2C+which+was+used+to+exchange+useful+information++among+the+students+in+the+classroom+and+with+overseas+partners.+Target++language+use+was+emphasised+for+all+communication.+After+gathering++information+for+5-6+weeks%2C+the+students+created+their+own+pages+by++writing+texts+and+inserting+images+and+sound.+There+was+a+peer+review++session+towards+the+end+of+the+course%2C+where+the+students+gave+comments++on+other+groups%27+pages+and+received+feedback+on+their+own+pages+from+the++classmates+and+teacher.+The+students+then+revised+their+pages+as++necessary+using+the+suggestions+from+the+review+sessions%2C+and+submitted++finalised+pages+to+the+teacher+at+the+end+of+the+semester.+These+pages++were+uploaded+to+a+Web+server%2C+and+made+available+to+a+worldwide++audience+%28The+pages+can+be+viewed+at%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glen.hlc.unimelb.edu.au%2Fglen%2Fhll%2F%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.glen.hlc.unimelb.edu.au%2Fglen%2Fhll%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EDuring++the+course+of+this+project%2C+IT+officers+took+active+roles%3B+coming+to++classrooms+for+IT+demonstrations+and+other+IT+support.+The+teachers+were++facilitators+rather+than+instructors.+They+had+prepared+the+basic++structure+of+the+course%2C+but+the+rest+was+left+flexible+to+leave+rooms++for+the+students+to+exercise+learner+autonomy.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E5+Data+collection+and+analysis%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EData++collected+included+transcripts+of+semi-structured+student+interviews++conducted+on+55+students+%285+students+from+each+language+classroom%29%2C++weekly+logs+kept+by+5+participant+teachers%2C+and+observational+notes+made++by+the+IT+officers+and+the+project+evaluator.+A+questionnaire+on++students%27+computer+literacy+was+also+used+for+the+analysis.+These+data++were+coded+by+the+project+evaluator+using+the+qualitative+data+analysis++application%2C+QSR+NUD*IST+%28see+Lynch%2C+2000+for+details%29.+For+this++analysis%2C+I+have+used+data+annotated+as+%22student+autonomy%22+and+other++related+indexes+such+as+%22computer+literacy%22%2C+%22motivation+and+attitude%22%2C++%22collaborative+learning%22+and+%22language+learning%22.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++analysis+for+this+study+followed+two+steps.+Firstly%2C+after+reviewing++all+the+autonomy-related+data%2C+I+have+categorised+the+student+comments++into+positive%2C+negative+and+neutral+in+terms+of+showing+evidence+of++learner+autonomy+in+PrOCALL.+While+the+majority+of+them+fell+into+the++neutral+category%2C+some+were+very+positive+or+negative.+For+the+second++step%2C+I+cross-analysed+these+positive+or+negative+comments+and+the++results+of+the+computer+literacy+questionnaire+in+order+to+extract+four++different+groups+of+students%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHigh+computer+literacy+students+who+made+positive+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHigh+computer+literacy+students+who+made+negative+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELow+computer+literacy+students+who+made+positive+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELow+computer+literacy+students+who+made+negative+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAll+the+participants%27+names+have+been+changed+to+pseudonyms+in+order+to+maintain+the+privacy+of+the+participants.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E6+Results+and+discussion%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EWhy++is+it+that%2C+under+similar+conditions%2C+technology+affects+autonomous++learning+in+ways+that+vary+widely+from+student+to+student%3F+For++technology+to+function+properly+was+a+sine+qua+non.+The+two+years%27++participation+in+the+PrOCALL+Project+gave+me+the+impression+that++reliability+and+accessibility+of+technology+were+a+prerequisite+for++autonomous+learning.+I+observed+the+students+were+more+independent+when++computers+were+acting+as+efficient+aids+for+learning.+However%2C+even+when++technology+did+function+well%2C+learner+autonomy+was+dependent+on+several++factors.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E6.1+Successful+students+with+high+computer+literacy+%287+students%29%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++students%27+reaction+to+the+hitches+varied+from+student+to+student%3A+some++enjoyed+the+challenges+of+technology+while+others+showed+hostility++toward+it.+Kate%2C+the+IT+officer%2C+observed+a+clear+difference+among+the++students%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EUpon++encountering+a+technical+problem%2C+the+students+who+were+confident+in++their+computer+skills+enjoyed+the+challenge+of+something+not+immediately++working%2C+and+learnt+how+to+make+use+of+it+more+efficiently+for+their++learning.+In+contrast%2C+technologically+less-advanced+students+or+less++confident+students+became+frustrated%2C+and+drew+back+from+taking+further++steps+%28Kate%2C+IT+officer%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEven++when+technology+was+functioning+properly%2C+the+reaction+from+these+two++groups+was+very+different.+When+the+students+were+at+the+beginning+stage++of+searching+for+topic+related+Web+sites%2C+the+techno-savvy+students++were+already+more+autonomous.+In+the+process+of+searching%2C+some+students++found+some+sites+that+they+could+use+in+the+future.+Patrick+from+the++Chinese+class+made+a+couple+of+email+pals+through+the+email+pal+service++that+he+found+on+the+Internet.+Pierre%2C+on+the+other+hand%2C+explored+a++number+of+programs+that+allowed+him+to+use+Japanese+and+thus+expanded++his+Japanese.+He+says%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAt++the+beginning+of+this+semester%2C+I+didn%27t+really+have+much+on+my++computer+which+could+use+the+Japanese+language%2C+%28but%29+I+found+heaps+and++heaps+of+resources+of+programs+that+I+could+browse+the+web+in+that++particular+language+and+word+process+in+the+language+%28Pierre%2C+Japanese++class+student%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EPierre++also+said+that+he+independently+made+choices+in+the+selection+of++reading+materials+commenting+that+%E2%80%98it+taught+me+to+sift+through+all+the++information+and+get+what+was+important%E2%80%99+.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0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tyle%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThere++may+be+a+technology+threshold+level+that+students+need+to+pass+in+order++to+achieve+learner+autonomy.+The+threshold+level%2C+however%2C+may+not+be++measured+quantitatively.+It+is+rather+an+emotional+barrier+that+students++create+in+their+mind.+In+interviews%2C+participant+students+were+asked++about+their+technological+skills.+Interestingly%2C+students+with+a+similar++level+of+technology+judge+their+skills+quite+differently.+From+the++comments+of+the+students+it+could+be+presumed+that+this+diversity+may+be++attributed+to+their+confidence+in+using+their+skills.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAll++the+students+came+to+PrOCALL+with+a+disposition+towards+technology++formed+by+their+previous+experiences.+The+students+who+previously+had++positive+experiences+with+technology+were+usually+keen+and+confident+in++their+attitude+towards+mixing+technology+and+collaborative+learning.++These+students%2C+in+most+cases%2C+exercised+their+learner+autonomy.+On+the++other+hand%2C+students+who+had+little+experience+or+negative+encounters++with+technology+reacted+very+differently.+In+some+cases%2C+their+negative++beliefs+impeded+the+development+of+their+potential+for+autonomy.++Nevertheless%2C+the+findings+from+the+data+analyses+suggest+thaN+students%27++perception+can+be+altered+through+positive+or+negative+experience++during+a+PrOCALL+course.+In+other+words%2C+students%27+attitude+toward++learner+autonomy+can+be+enhanced+or+impeded+by+changes+in+their+beliefs.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E7+Conclusion%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++this+article%2C+I+have+indicated+evidence+of+critical+incidents+that++facilitated+or+inhibited+learner+autonomy+in+terms+of+technological++supports+for+language+learning.+I+have+also+pointed+out+salient+learner++differences+in+reactions+to+the+incorporation+of+technology.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETo++summarise%2C+the+findings+suggest%2C+generally+speaking%2C+that+technology++can+have+a+positive+impact+on+learner+autonomy+when+learners+have++extensive+experience+with+technology.+However%2C+they+also+suggest+that+it++can+have+a+positive+impact+on+autonomy+only+when+learners+perceive++technology+as+a+useful+tool.+The+findings+indicate+that+learners%27++perceptions+vary+largely+according+to+the+level+of+their+computer++literacy+although+the+students%27+beliefs+may+be+modified+through+positive++or+negative+relationships+with+other+students.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++implications+of+the+study+may+be+that+there+are+at+least+three++conditions+necessary+for+successful+autonomous+learning+in+PrOCALL.++Firstly%2C+it+must+be+guaranteed+that+the+technology+in+use+is+accessible++and+reliable.+The+accessibility+and+reliability+of+technology+are+a++necessary+prerequisite+for+learner+autonomy.+The+second+condition+is++sufficient+computer+literacy+in+students.+Although+it+is+hard+to+state++how+much+computer+knowledge+and+skills+are+needed%2C+it+appears+that++students+are+required+to+have+some+fundamental+computer+literacy+in++order+to+make+use+of+a+technology-rich+environment.+Lastly%2C+and+most++importantly%2C+good+communication+with+and+support+from+peers+should+be++emphasised.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAcknowledgments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EI++would+like+to+express+my+deepest+gratitude+to+Dr.+Robert+Debski+who++guided+me+and+gave+me+constructive+feedback+throughout+the+course+of+the++project+and+in+writing+the+paper.+I+also+wish+to+express+my+sincere++thanks+to+Associate+Professor+Tim+McNamara+for+his+invaluable+advice+and++encouragement.+Thanks+are+also+due+to+friends+and+colleagues+who+helped++and+supported+me%2C+especially+Richard+Harrison%2C+D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