tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-81521451729076927642023-11-26T14:18:21.922-08:00WELCOME TO RIRIN's BLOGAll About CALLfarindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.comBlogger32125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-86839797157665405232011-12-03T18:50:00.001-08:002011-12-03T18:50:13.484-08:00CALL Use in the ESL/EFL Classroom<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> CALL Use in the ESL/EFL ClassOoom </h3><div class="post-header"></div><div id="abt" style="color: black;"><h1><span class="fn"><br />
</span></h1><div id="by">By <a href="http://esl.about.com/bio/Kenneth-Beare-2205.htm" rel="author">Kenneth Beare</a>, About.com Guide</div></div><br />
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<div style="color: red;">There has been much debate over the use of computer assisted language learning (CALL) in the ESL/EFL classroom over the past decade. As you are reading this feature via the Internet (and I am writing this using a computer), I will assume that you feel that CALL is useful to your teaching and/or learning experience.</div><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><div style="color: red;">There are many uses of the computer in the classroom. In today's feature I would like to provide some examples of how I like to use CALL in my teaching. I find that CALL can be successfully employed not only for grammar practice and correction, but also for communicative activities. As most of you are familiar with the programs that offer help with grammar, I would like to focus on the use of CALL for communicative activities.</div><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><div style="color: red;">Successful communication learning is dependent on the student's desire to participate. I'm sure most teachers are familiar with students who complain about poor speaking and communication skills, who however, when asked to communicate, are often reluctant to do so. In my opinion, this lack of participation is often caused by the artificial nature of the classroom. When asked to communicate about various situations, students should also be involved in the actual situation. Decision making, asking for advice, agreeing and disagreeing, and compromising with fellow students are all tasks that cry out for "authentic" settings. It is in these settings that I feel CALL can be used to great advantage. By using the computer as a tool to create student projects, research information and provide context, teachers can employ the computer to help students become more involved in the task at hand, thereby facilitating the necessity of effective communication within a group setting.</div><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><div style="color: red;"><b>Exercise 1 Focus on Passive Voice</b></div><div style="color: red;">Generally, students coming from around the world are more than happy to speak about their native country. Obviously, when speaking about a country (city, state etc.) the passive voice is required. I have found the following activity using the computer to be of great assistance in helping students focus on the correct use of the passive voice for communication and reading and writing skills.</div></div><ul style="color: red;"><li>Inductively review the passive structures in class (or introduce the passive structures)<br />
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<li>Provide a text example, focusing on a specific location, that includes many passive voice structures<br />
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<li>Have students read through the text<br />
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<li>As a follow up, have students separate passive voice and active voice examples<br />
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<li>Using a program such as Microsoft Encarta or any other multimedia encyclopaedia, (or the Internet) have students working in small groups find information about their own nation (or any city, state etc.)<br />
</li>
<li>Based on the information they have found, students then write a short report together at the computer (using a spell check, communicating about formatting etc.)<br />
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<li>Students then report back to the class presenting their report created at the computer<br />
</li>
</ul><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><div style="color: red;">This exercise is a perfect example of involving students in an "authentic" activity that focuses on communication skills while at the same time including a grammar focus, and uses the computer as a tool. Students have fun together, communicate in English and are proud of the results they achieve - all ingredients for successful inductive learning of the passive voice in a communicative manner.</div><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><div style="color: red;"><b>Exercise 2 Strategy Games<br />
</b>For younger learners of English, strategy games can be one of the most effective ways to get students to communicate, agree and disagree, ask for opinions and generally use their English in an authentic setting. Students are asked to focus on the successful completion of a task such as solving riddles (<i>Myst, Riven)</i> and developing strategies (SIM City).</div><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><ul style="color: red;"><li>Choose a strategy game such as a SIM or mystery<br />
</li>
<li>Have students divide into teams<br />
</li>
<li>Create a specific task in the game itself, such as the completion of a certain level, the creation of a certain type of environment, the solving of a specific riddle. This is important for providing a framework and specific language needs/goals for a common ground in the classroom.<b><br />
</b> </li>
<li>Have students complete the task.<b><br />
</b> </li>
<li>Have students come together in the classroom and compare strategies.<b><br />
</b> </li>
</ul><div style="color: black;"><div style="color: reF;"><br />
</div><div style="color: red;">Once again, students who find it difficult to participate in a classroom setting (Describe your favourite holiday? Where did you go? What did you do? etc.) generally become involved. The focus is not on their completing a task which can be judged as correct or incorrect, but rather on the enjoyable atmosphere of team work which a computer strategy game provides.</div><div style="color: red;"><br />
</div><span style="color: red;">These are just a two examples of the various ways in which a computer can be used as a tool with which students are encouraged to participate in satisfying communicative experiences. Below are further links providing information on the use of the computer in the classroom</span>. </div><div style="color: black;"><a href="http://esl.about.com/od/esleflteachingtechnique/a/t_usecall.htm">http://esl.about.com/od/esleflteachingtechnique/a/t_usecall.htm</a></div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-71785058424898604042011-12-03T18:48:00.001-08:002011-12-03T18:48:42.101-08:00Designing CALL programs for communicative teaching<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Designing CALL programs for communicative teaching </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="color: red;"><tbody>
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</tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">This article describes three stages in the development of CALL programs to fit the communicative approach to language teaching, which is here understood as an approach that emphasizes meaningful interaction and information exchange. The three stages are exemplified by programs called </span></i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Escape from Utopia <i>(based on an EUZA keyword-matching technique). </i>Shannon's Game <i>(a syntactic parser approach that uses PROLOG), and </i>Station <i>(an information processing approach that also uses PROLOG). </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The three stages exemplify progressively deeper ways of handling language by computer. The article suggests that the first stage superficially allows students to interact meaningfully with the computer, and that keyword matching has severe limitations and is incapable of further development The second stage, parsing, is considered an improvement on traditional teacher techniques rather than a contribution to the communicative approach. The third stage is regarded as more fully usable within communicative methodology, since it requires programs that represent and handle information as well as parse structure. </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The article concludes that there is no necessary incompatibility between the communicative approach and CALL, even if considerable development is needed. </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Introduction </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">An account of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) concludes that the connection between CALL and language teaching is at present tenuous (Cook 1985a). The conclusion was that while teachers today commonly expect students to learn by understanding meaningful messages, or by communicating information to one another, CALL programs mostly assume that they learn by drilling or by consciously mastering grammatical rules: the ideas of language learning reflected in CALL and those reflected in communicative language teaching are therefore out of step. This article tries to bridge this gap by developing the links between CALL on the one hand and the communicative approach to language teaching on the other.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The communicative approach is a broad umbrella ranging over ideas as various as those of Brumfit (1984), Littlewood (1981), and Widdowson (1978). Here, the approach is understood with reference to two principles: one is that the students engage in <i>meaningful interaction </i>with each other in the classroom; the other is that this interaction involves them in <i>information exchange </i>of one kind or another. These principles are used in many teaching activities, and the discussion here will concentrate on two typical communicative techniques, found in many discussions such as Littlewood (1981) or Revell (1979): <i>information gap </i>games, in which the students devise their own strategies for overcoming a difference in information set up by the teacher, as in the widely used game in which two students have to find out the similarities and differences between two pictures; and <i>functional roleplay </i>activities, in which the students act out a real-world situation they are likely to encounter and the type of information exchange they will have to use, as in simulated situations involving customers and shop assistants, passengers and travel clerks, or doctors and patients.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The way of accommodating CALL to communicative teaching suggested here consists of improving its ability to interact with students and to handle information. This means drawing more on the computer's ability to handle human language than CALL has actually done. The article outlines three progressively deeper ways of handling language by computer, illustrated by specimen programs. As well as describing their teaching use, some time is spent giving the reader an idea of how they work, so that he or she may see their limitations and potential; a more general account of the computing background can be found in Cook and Fass (1986) and Cook (1987).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The ELIZA Approach </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><i>Escape from Utopia </i>(Cook 1984a) is a spy game in which the students have the goal of escaping from the city of Utopia within 24 hours. The students have to work out a plan of escape and must remain undetected long enough to put their plan into operation. The game starts in the main square of the city; the students decide which places they want to go to—the restaurant, hotel, railway station, and so on. A map appears on the screen with symbols for the students' location and for that of a patrolling police agent. They move around the map by typing commands into the computer:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Student: </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Turn left.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Computer: OK. [The students' symbol moves one space leftward, the police agent moves one space nearer.]</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Go east.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Impossible. [There is a building in the way. The students' symbol doesn't move, but the police agent comes one space nearer.]</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Right.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: No verb. [The police agent moves one space nearer.]</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">And so on, until the students reach the destination or are caught by the police.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">When the students arrive, they engage in dialogues appropriate to the situation; if they are at the restaurant, the following dialogue could ensue:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: You go into an expensive restaurant. You sit down at a table and a man comes up to you and says:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Can I help you?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: I'd like something to drink, please.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: What would you like?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Some beer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: I'm sorry. We are not allowed to serve alcoholic drinks before six. Can I get you something else?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Yes. Could I have a cup of coffee?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Certainly. Black or white?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: White, please.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: You sit waiting. The waiter comes with your drink.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Here is your coffee.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Thank you very much. '</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="coloN� red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: You sit drinking your coffee. Press C when you have finished.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">On the surface this seems like the usual dialogues familiar in functional and situational textbooks. However, the dialogue here is flexible rather than predetermined. On the one hand, the details of the restaurant and the waiter's remarks are never exactly the same twice running; on the other, the computer adapts its language to whatever the student types in—dealing appropriately with food or drink (ranging from a cup of coffee to a four course meal). The students lose points by making mistakes in English, such as not using 'please', or by contravening the conventions of Utopia: for instance, the word 'blue' is taboo because of its associations with a banned political party.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The computing technique that forms the basis of <i>Escape </i>is keyword matching. When the students type in <i>Turn left, </i>the computer scans the sentence to see if any of the words match a list of 'keywords' it has stored, 'turn, move, . . . right, left, up, . . .'. If it finds a match, it works out if the move is possible in terms of the current state of play and then moves the symbol; <i>Turn left </i>means matching 'turn' and 'left', finding which space is left of the students' current position, checking whether it is empty, and then moving the symbol there. The process is matching the input against keywords and following preset actions for each keyword; if it fails to find a match, it displays messages such as 'No verb' or 'No direction'. The keyword-matching principle is used in most computer adventure games such as <i>The Hobbit </i>(1983).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The dialogue situations in <i>Escape </i>take keyword matching a stage further in what is known as an ELIZA program (Weizenbaum 1966). In the restaurant scenario the student types <i>Could I have a cup of coffee please? </i>And the program searches its stock of keywords to find any matches. Having matched <i>coffee, </i>it looks for a preset message and finds <i>Black or white?. </i>If the student had typed <i>tea, </i>the appropriate message would have been <i>With milk?; whisky </i>would have prompted <i>With ice?, </i>and so on. Again this is a mechanical process of finding a keyword and taking appropriate action, here displaying a message. As well as keyword matching, ELIZA programs make use of the input in various ways. They may store the students' remark and give it back to them at a later time; <i>I'm here on holiday </i>later becomes <i>Earlier you said you were here on holiday </i>by adding <i>Earlier you said, </i>changing <i>I'm to you were </i>and ending with a repetition <i>here on holiday. </i>Or the programs may store the input to use in particular routines; the police interrogation in <i>Escape </i>has an insult routine in which the students' nationality is combined with various patterns such as <i>You . .. fool! </i>or <i>Why do .. . people always tell lies? </i>The combination of these techniques gives a reasonable impression of conversation, as we see above. Many people using ELIZA credited it with amazingly perceptive powers (Weizenbaum 1976). However, this is little more than an illusion; the program is mechanically looking for strings of letters and producing other preset strings of letters in return.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The activities in <i>Escape </i>are then closely related to the communicative techniques mentioned above. In the map section the students are engaging in a computer version of an information-gap game, very similar, for example, to that described in Krashen and Terrell (1983) and many other sources; the computer responds to their attempts to guide the spy round the city streets, just as their partner responds in the classroom version. The dialogues put the students in simulated tourist situations—what to say when buying things in a shop, or ordering drinks in a cafe; again this is parallel to functional role play. The spygame context of <i>Escape </i>is intended to motivate and entertain with its flavour of an adventure game. Individual students can use it on their own; the game is never quite the same on two occasions or for two different students. It may also be used with small groups of students or with the entire class; the students have to decide what the character should do, and a spokesperson or the teacher types in their input; here the value comes not just from the program itself but also from the discussion it stimulates among the students.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Surprisingly ELIZA techniques have seldom been utilized in CALL, though the technique is easily accessible in the literature and adaptable to microcomputers (e.g. Krutch 1981). ELIZA techniques can be used with other teaching exercises. <i>Chatterbox </i>(Cook and Hamilton 1984), for instance, interviews students for admission to a university; the teacher can set up alternative situations by adding suitable keywords and messages, for example changing the interview to a hospital or a chemist's shop.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">ELIZA programs go some way towards CALL material that handles language. They meet the communicative principle of meaningful interaction in that the students interact within a limited situation; the students' partner, however, is a computer rather than another student. ELIZA programs also meet the principle of information exchange by requiring the students to use particular types of information. The students' attention is then focused on what they are doing with language, rather than on language forms: the activities seem very similar to conventional communicative techniques.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">What is wrong with them is not so much their teaching use as their severe limitations in computing terms. One problem is their very strength; while they produce some kind of response whatever the input, there is no check on its grammaticality or meaningfulness; teachers and students may become justifiably frustrated by a program that accepts <i>You estupido </i>by blandly answering <i>Do go on. </i>Improving the realism of the simulated conversation also becomes more and more unwieldy; the PARRY program needs some 10,000 matching patterns to model a paranoid patient, for instance (Colby 1975). ELIZAs are also superficial; they do not recognize syntax or meaning, they match strings of letters. ELIZA programs therefore represent a dead end rather than a growing point; readable accounts of their failings can be found in Schank and Childers (1984) and Weizenbaum (1976). While programs such as <i>Escape </i>show that typical communicative activities can be incorporated in CALL, their lack of subtlety means they should be treated as amusement rather than as serious teaching.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><i>The syntactic parser approach </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">To go beyond this, let us see to what extent keyword-matching programs can deal with syntax. <i>Shannon's Game </i>(Cook 1985b) requires students to guess words of a text in sequence from start to finish. Students may ask for clues about the next word at any time. Suppose the students have so far guessed some of the first words of a beginner's text:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Alec Guiness is a famous film star.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Clue: pronoun</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: He</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Right. Alec Guiness is a famous film star. He</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Clue: auxiliary</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: can</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Wrong. Two guesses left.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: is</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Right. Alec Guiness is a famous film star. He is</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Clue: content word.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: young</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Wrong. Two guesses left.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: American</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Wrong. One guess left.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The actual screen display keeps all the text guessed so far on the screen, rather than repeating it as here. There is considerable choice in the way students can tackle the text. Apart from choosing a text, they may request four different levels of clue. Level 1 tells them whether the next word is a 'content word' such as <i>English, </i>or 'a structure word' such as <i>is. </i>Level 2 tells them the type of structure word—'preposition', 'article', 'auxiliary', and so on. Level 3 gives them help with word endings; they are told if the word ends in <i>s </i>or <i>ing, </i>or <i>er, </i>etc. Level 4 gives more specific clues such as 'present continuous', 'passive', or 'proper name'. The more help they ask for, the fewer points they can score. The students also decide whether to guess content words only, structure words only, or all the words in the text. The teaching aim is to develop the students' feel for text structure; the exercise can be done individually or by groups of students who discuss the answers they should give, with or without the teacher's help. The teacher can add any text he or she likes to the program at any level of difficulty.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The program does not depend upon the teacher pre-analysing each text; this is done by the computer through keyword matching. It recognizes a set of keywords, namely 206 structure words, and has preset 'clues' that it prints according to the level of help requested. So at Level 1, if the computer matches the word as a structure word, it prints out the message 'structure word'; if it can't match the word, it prints 'content word'. At Level 2 it has a preset message 'pronoun' when it encounters any of a list of pronouns, and the same for other word classes. At Level 3 it looks for word endings and has messages to print whenever it matches <i>ing, </i>or <i>er. </i>At Level 4 on the one hand it provides more detailed messages such as 'Subject pronoun' for <i>I </i>versus 'Object pronoun' for <i>me; </i>on the other it works out tenses—if it finds an <i>ing </i>ending and the preceding word was <i>is </i>or <i>are </i>or <i>am, </i>it suggests 'present continuous'. While <i>Shannon's Game </i>appears to use syntax, this too is an illusion; it is looking for keywords or endings, i.e. strings of letters in the input, and producing preset messages. It therefore tends to make mistakes; thus it calls <i>red a. </i>past tense, and claims that <i>ring </i>is an '-ing word'.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Keyword matching is an ineffective way of looking for syntax, since understanding grammatical structure involves more than matching strings of letters and recognizing structure words. How could the computer better deal with the identification of grammatical structure? This requires a 'parser'—a program that recognizes the syntactic structure of sentences. The basic process is to invent a possible structure for a sentence and to see if it fits the one that has been typed in; if the guess doesn't fit, the program goes on inventing structures till it succeeds or it gives up.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Suppose the input is <i>The man sees the train. </i>The program starts by guessing that this is a sentence consisting of a noun phrase and a verb phrase; it then guesses that the noun phrase will have a determiner and a noun. It now turns to the actual sentence and checks whether <i>the </i>is a determiner; it succeeds, so it checks whether <i>man </i>is a noun, which again succeeds. It goes back to the verb phrase, which it guesses will consist of a verb and a noun phrase. It checks whether <i>sees </i>is a verb and succeeds. It guesses that the second noun phrase has a determiner and a noun, and successfully matches <i>the </i>and <i>train. </i>It has checked the whole of the sentence against its guesses and has therefore 'parsed' the sentence. Matching is now the final step, rather than the whole process.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">This parser can be put in the form of the following 'rules':</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S — NP VP</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">NP — Det N</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">VP ->- V NP</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">N —»• <i>man, John, bomb, train, . . . </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Det -»- <i>the, a, . . . </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">V <i>—- leaves, goes, sees, </i>. . .</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">To those familiar with generative grammar, these rules are instantly recognizable as a conventional phrase structure grammar. Such grammars can be converted into parsers through part of the computer language PROLOG known as 'grammar rules' with only minimal changes, e.g. S —> NP VP becomes s —> np,vp.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">What happens when the parser's guess is wrong? Let us add the rule for English intransitive sentences that have a verb but no object, i.e. VP—> V. Suppose the parser is given <i>the train leaves. </i>It starts as before by hypothesizing that this is NP VP, and that the NP is Det N, all of which succeed. Now it guesses that VP is V NP, the first VP rule. It succeeds in checking <i>leaves </i>as a verb, but there is no NP left to match: the rule VP—>V NP has failed. So it turns to the second rule VP —> V; it tries to match <i>leaves </i>as a verb, succeeds, and completes parsing the sentence. If the program does not succeed in its first guess, it goes back to the point where things started to go wrong and tries again with another rule. It keeps doing this until it gets it right, or until it runs out of rules and fails to parse the sentence.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Technically the type of parser outlined here is top-down (it goes from the sentence down to the words, rather than <i>vice versa) </i>and depth-first (it follows one item all the way, rather than looking at them all simultaneously). Many other kinds of parser are possible; a useful introduction can be found in Winograd (1983). While few parsers deal with much of the syntax of native speakers, a CALL parser can be less complex because the student's grammar can be considered in many respects a 'simplified' form of the language. The task does, however, demand a high-level computer language such as LISP or PROLOG rather than the languages mostly available on microcomputers.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Such parsers can be used with any CALL exercises that involve syntactic structure. A major use is for grammatical correction. In a program described in Pulman (1984), students explore their knowledge of English by testing out their sentences; they ask questions and the computer answers them or gives them feedback. FROG (Imlah and du Boulay 1985) uses a combination of top-down and bottom-up parsing in PROLOG to check students' sentences in French for various types of grammatical mistake such as agreement. Parsers can also be used in drills to check the students' answers in a more exhaustive fashion than is allowed by preset answers and permitting a range of possible answers to be given, all equally correct. A further use is with text-guessing exercises of the <i>Storyboard </i>type (Jones and Higgins 1984). As in <i>Shannon's Game, </i>these may be extended by giving the student help with grammatical clues; a parser can provide more detailed and accurate grammatical clues than the keyword program described above. Though as yet little used in CALL, grammatical explanation techniques could also be linked to a parser that produces or analyses sentences according to the rule being taught, and also draws visual diagrams of the structure of the sentence. Finally a more ambitious use is to create exercises; the program described by Markosian and Ager (1983) invents the drill itself from a parser and a dictionary according to the teacher's instructions.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Syntactic parsers therefore tend to make existing CALL techniques more sophisticated, mostly by providing superior assessment and correction of the student's input. For those who are concerned with grammatical correction, grammatical explanation, or drills, this may in itself be a step forward. But a parser can contribute little directly to communicative teaching, since it is concerned with grammatical form, rather than with interaction or information; it can itself add little to information-gap exercises and functional role plays.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">An Information processing approach </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">A program called <i>Station </i>(Cook 1985c) shows how a parser can be extended to facilitate communicative CALL programs. In <i>Station </i>students have dialogues with a local railway station (in this case, Colchester in Essex). Students enquire when trains leave, what platform they leave from, how much the tickets cost, etc.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Hello. British Rail, Colchester.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Could you be telling me the train to Harwich?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Sorry—I don't understand.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: When is the next train Do Harwich?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: It leaves at three o'clock.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: What platform is it?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: It leaves from platform 4.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: When does he arrive?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: When does what?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: When does it arrive?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: It arrives at half past three.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: How much is it?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: It costs two pounds.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">S: Thank you. Goodbye.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">C: Goodbye.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">In computing terms, <i>Station </i>resembles programs in the artificial intelligence field that let naive users ask questions about some topic. One such program is <i>Gus, </i>which books airplane flights from Palo Alto (Bobrow <i>et al. </i>1977). The idea of <i>Station, </i>though not the programming techniques, is indeed based on <i>Gus. </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The first requirement for such programs is a database of relevant information. <i>Station </i>is written in PROLOG, which stores data as relationships between items rather than as lists of items, as in the following small sample of its database:</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">leave(harwich.three).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">ticket(harwich,two)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">arrive(harwich,four).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 120px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">platform (harwich,four).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Thus 'leave(harwich,three).' means that there is a relationship called 'leave' between two items 'harwich' and 'three', i.e. <i>The Harwich train leaves at three o'clock; </i>'platform(harwich,four).' means there is a relationship 'platform' between the items 'harwich' and 'four', i.e. <i>The Harwich train leaves from platform four, </i>and so on.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The problem is getting from the students' question to the information in the database. The first stage involves discovering what piece of information the questioner wants to know and putting it in the form of the semantic relationship used in the database. This demands a parser like the one illustrated above, but yielding a form of semantic representation as well as the syntactic representation. So the question <i>When is the next train to Harwich?</i></span> <span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">is parsed to get a representation showing which information is missing, 'Next train to Harwich leaves at X', represented in PROLOG as 'leave(harwich, X)'. The question <i>How much is it? </i>requires the information <i>The price of a ticket to Harwich is X, </i>or 'ticket(harwich, X)'. The program searches its database to find something that matches everything but 'X', i.e. 'ticket(harwich, two)'. It now substitutes 'two' for 'X'. Other questions are tackled in the same way. PROLOG can moreover work out relationships thaN are not explicitly stated in the database, by inference. It is thus a different type of computer language from BASIC, which is typically used in CALL programs; a dear account of its use in teaching can be found in Ennals (1983).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">To produce the answer containing the right information means using the parser in reverse, i.e. to produce a sentence rather than to analyse it; instead of starting with the sentence <i>When is the next train to Harwich? </i>and ending up with 'leave(harwich, X)', it feeds the answer leave(harwich, three)' into the parser to produce the sentence <i>It leaves at three o'clock. </i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">A practicable small CALL program needs a discourse routine to remind it for instance that <i>it </i>refers to the last train mentioned. It also needs to handle the deviant input that students are likely to use. The solution in <i>Station </i>is similar to Pulman (1984) except that it produces naturalistic prompts rather than descriptions of error. Thus if the student types <i>Could you be telling me the train to Harwich? </i>the program makes nothing at all of the sentence and produces <i>Sorry</i>—I <i>don't understand; </i>if the student types <i>When does he arrive?, </i>the program gets as far as <i>When does </i>and produces <i>When does what? </i>While hardly a sophisticated form of error correction, it can readily be expanded to the limits of the grammar built in to the parser, unlike keyword-matching programs.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">In many ways the initial problem of producing CALL exercises that interact flexibly with students and that deal with real information seems to be solved. In terms of communicative teaching the argument has almost gone full circle; the examples of exercises using an information-processing approach resemble those possible with ELIZA; their teaching use with individuals or groups is likely to be similar. The difference is that they can now be developed to higher levels of sophistication and realism. Information- gap games seem particularly transferable to the computer. <i>Dinner Party </i>(Cook 1984b), for example, is a standard communication game in which the students have to devise a menu for a meal by finding out what their guests can eat and what they like to eat. Rather than a class exercise where some students are given the missing information and some are not, they have to find it out by consulting the computer program, which uses virtually the same parser as <i>Station </i>with a different data-base about people's eating habits.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The approach can equally deal with information exchange. Any sort of data may be used, provided they can be organized in the form given above; <i>Musicians </i>(Cook 1984c), for example, allows students to ask questions about jazz history, using basically the same parser but a database with greater powers of inference—e.g. if a musician <i>is great </i>this automatically means he is <i>good. </i>Alternative forms of interaction can also be set up: <i>Musicians </i>replies using a form of hep-talk; <i>Is Miles good? </i>yields <i>He plays a real cool horn, man. </i>In principle many functional role plays could be adapted to this format.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">There are at least three dangers in accepting this solution too wholeheartedly. One is that the initial outlay of time and effort in developing the computing techniques is considerable; once done, however, the elements of the parser and data-handling programs found in <i>Station </i>can be used as the core of a whole generation of exercises, rather than being a one-off program. The second danger is believing that the increased depth of computing enables the computer to handle language in any real way; it knows that there is a relationship called 'platform' between 'harwich' and 'four', but it still has no idea what a platform is. Indeed Searle (1984) argues that no computer program does more than simulate language behaviour: all the computer can ever do is juggle with strings of letters in complex fashions, rather than use language. The third danger is that a negative summing up of the computer's contribution could be 'human simulation'. Communicative teaching depends upon people interacting with each other; the programs have substituted a computer for one of the participants involved. Thus, while they certainly allow communicative techniques to be used for self-instruction, hitherto scarcely possible through other means, they at best provide a poor substitute for the fellow student or the living teacher. They do not extend communicative techniques; they replicate them in another medium.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Conclusion </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">I have tried to show that CALL programs which meet some of the requirements of communicative methodology can in principle be devised; there is no necessity to confine the use of computer programs to more traditional methods. The results achieved so far may not be particularly impressive, except in the possibilities they afford for teacherless communicative teaching. But once such powerful tools as parsers and logical databases are freely available for CALL, who knows what new generation of exercises they may lead to?</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Received June 1987 </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">References </span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Bobrow, D. G., R. M. Kaplan, M. Kay, D. A. Norman, H. Thompson, and T. Winograd. 1977. 'GUS, a frame-driven dialog system.' <i>Artificial Intelligence </i>8/2:155-73.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Brumfit, C 1984. <i>Communicative Methods in Language Teaching. </i>Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Colby, K- M. 1975. <i>Artificial Paranoia: A Computer Simulation of Paranoid Processes. </i>New York: Pergamon.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1984a. <i>Escape From Utopia. </i>Program for a BBC B microcomputer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1984b. <i>Dinner Party. </i>Program for DEC 10 computer, University of Essex.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1984c. <i>Musicians. </i>Program for DEC 10 computer, University of Essex.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1985a. 'Bridging the gap between computing and language teaching.' <i>ELT Documents </i>122:13—24.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1985b. <i>Shannon’s Game. </i>Program for BBC B microcomputer.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1985c. <i>Station. </i>Program for DEC 10 computer, University of Essex.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. 1987. 'Natural language processing as interface between CALL and computing.' <i>Fremdsprachen und Hochschule </i>20:17-26.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. and D. Fass. 1986. 'Natural language processing by computer and language teaching.' <i>System.</i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Cook, V. J. and A. Hamilton. 1984. <i>Chatterbox.</i>Program for BBC B microcomputer. London: The British Council.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat;">Ennals</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; baOkCround-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat;">, </span><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0% 50%; background-repeat: repeat;">J</span>. R. 1983. <i>Beginning Micro-Prolog. </i>London: Heinemann.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><i>Hobbit, The. </i>1983. Program for BBC B microcomputer. Melbourne House.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Imlah, W. G. and J. B. H. du Boulay. 1985. Robust natural language parsing in computer-assisted language instruction.' <i>System </i>13/2:137-47.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Jones, C. and J. Higgins. 1984. <i>Storyboard. </i>London: Wida.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Krashen, S. and T. Terrell 1983. <i>The Natural Approach. </i>Oxford: Pergamon.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Krutch, J. 1981. <i>Experiments in Artificial Intelligence for Small Computers. </i>Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Littlewood, W. 1981. <i>Communicative Language Teaching. </i>Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Markosian, L. Z. and T. A. Ager. 1983. 'Applications of parsing theory to computer assisted instruction.' <i>System </i>11/1:65-77.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Pullman, S. 1984. 'Limited Domain Systems for Language Teaching.' Paper presented at COLING conference.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Revell, J. 1979. <i>Communicative Techniques for Teaching English. </i>London: Macmillan.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Schank, R- C<i>. </i>and P. G. Childers. 1984. <i>The Cognitive Computer. </i>New York: Addison-Wesley.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Searle, J. 1984. <i>Minds, Brains, and Science. </i>London: BBC.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Starkey, H. 1984. <i>TELEM-NANTES. </i>London: Hodder & Stoughton.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Weizenbaum, J. 1966. 'ELIZA—a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machines.' <i>Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery </i>9:36-45.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Weizenbaum, J. 1976. <i>Computer Power and Human Reason. </i>San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Widdowson, H. G. 1978. <i>Teaching Language as Communication. </i>Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Winograd, T. 1983. <i>Language as Cognitive Process: Volume 1 Syntax. </i>New York: Addison-Wesley.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><i><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">The author</span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="color: red; line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90px; margin-right: 90px;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Vivian Cook started as a lecturer in English as a Foreign Language at Ealing Technical College, London, moved to North-East London Polytechnic to run a Polytechnic Language Service, and since 1978 has been a lecturer in Applied Linguistics at Essex University. His current interests are CALL, first and second language acquisition, and the uses of contemporary linguistic theories. He has written on first language acquisition <i>(Young Children and Language, </i>Arnold 1979), on second language learning <i>(Experimental Approaches to Second Language Learning, </i>Pergamon 1986), and on current Chomskyan theory <i>(Chomsky's Universal Grammar: An Introduction, </i>Blackwell 1988), as well as several EFL coursebooks such as <i>Active Intonation </i>(Longman 1968) and <i>People and Places </i>(Pergamon 1980).</span></div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-92164467321911565802011-12-03T18:46:00.001-08:002011-12-03T18:46:46.926-08:00Evaluating Malaysian Science and Technology undergraduates' reactions towards an online ESP 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eal.+While++learners+reported+that+they+found+the+online+course+very+useful%2C++interviews+suggested+that+these+claims+might+have+been+based+on+a++shallow+awareness+of+what+is+involved+in+independent+learning.+The+study++also+highlighted+the+crucial+role+played+by+learners%27+initial++orientation+to+the+self-access+centers+%28SAC%29+and+the+ongoing+support++provided.+Results+also+suggested+that+learners%27+independent+learning++might+at+times+have+been+held+back+by+teacher-directed+activities+or+a++lack+of+knowledge+of+how+to+learn+independently.+They+proposed+that+if++stronger+ties+were+forged+between+class-based+learning+and+independent++learning%2C+learners%27+awareness+of+the+potential+of+the+online+course++might+increase+and+a+different+kind+of+learning+might+occur+there.++Finally%2C+while+the+study+found+that+learners+were+generally+well++disposed+to+the+concept+of+autonomous+learning%2C+they+lacked+a+sensible++understanding+of+the+rationale+behind+this+approach+to+learning%2C+and+of++what+it+involved+in+practice.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELefever%27s++study+%282004%29+investigated+an+e-learning+environment+used+for+teaching++distance+education+English+courses+at+Iceland+University+of+Education.++The+three+main+components+investigated+were+communication%2C+autonomous++learning+and+cooperative+learning.+Information+and+communication++Technology+%28ICT%29+in+the+form+of+course+websites%2C+Internet+links+and++asynchronous+web-based+tools+was+the+common+factor+in+the+learning++environment.+Students+participating+in+the+program+were+asked+to++evaluate+the+content%2C+organization%2C+and+the+pedagogical+effectiveness+of++the+learning+environment.+The+findings+were+positive+in+general+and++focused+on+how+ICT+generated+more+opportunities+for+student-teacher++communication+and+feedback.+It+also+assisted+students+separated+by++physical+distance+to+work+together+in+their+studies.+Finally%2C+it+also++provided+students+broad+access+to+information+and+resources+and+hence++fostering+learner+autonomy.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EColl%27s++study+%282004%29+examined+the+effects+of+online+learning+for+beginning++Spanish+classes+in+higher+education+in+Shawnee+State+University%2C++Portsmouth%2C+Ohio.+In+this+study%2C+two+first-level+elementary+Spanish++classes+were+compared.+One+class+underwent+listening+and+writing++activities+using+only+audio+compact+discs+whereas+the+other+class+had++the+added+advantage+of+working+on+online+activities+as+homework.+The++students+from+the+two+classes+were+monitored+closely+through+formative++evaluations+until+the+end+of+their+third+level+to+assess+their++acquisition+of+listening%2C+speaking%2C+reading%2C+writing+and+cultural++skills.+The+study+showed+that+the+online+program+benefited+both+students++and+teachers.+Students+in+the+second+class+found+the+language++instruction+more+meaningful+and+varied+and+they+were+interested+and++motivated+to+work+harder+in+and+outside+of+the+classroom+environment.++They+were+also+more+autonomous+learners.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EReports+of+Studies+on+Online+Language+Learning+in+the+Malaysian+Context%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAzizah++et+al.+%282004%29+investigated+teachers%27+and+students%27+perceptions+of+the++efficiency+of+the+SMART+program+by+using+questionnaires+and+interviews.++The+SMART+School+Education+Program+integrates+teaching+and+learning+with++ICT+applications%2C+which+include+computer-based+teaching+and+web-based++learning.+This+program+started+with+four+subjects%2C+English%2C+Bahasa++Melayu+%28Malaysia%27s+official+language%29%2C+Science+and+Mathematics.+The++findings+showed+that+both+teachers+and+students+were+confident+and+ready++to+accept+learning+English+through+this+method+and+79.5%25+of+the++teachers+felt+comfortable+with+their+new+roles+as+facilitators.+However%2C++they+revealed+that+limitations+in+infrastructure+reduced+the++effectiveness+of+this+mode+of+teaching.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ENadzrah++and+Mickan+%282003%29+looked+into+Form+Two+students%27+perceptions+of+the+use++of+computers+in+one+of+the+SMART+schools+in+Malaysia.+The+data+were++collected+mainly+from+classroom+observations+and+interviews.+The++findings+revealed+that+students%27+attitudes+towards+the+use+of+computers++in+the+Olassroom+were+generally+positive.+They+agreed+that+computer++activities+helped+to+improve+their+proficiency+in+English.+This+was++particularly+so+when+they+were+followed+by+discussions%2C+role-plays+and++presentations.+However%2C+the+study+demonstrated+that+weak+students+were++not+actively+involved+in+the+follow-up+activities.+The+findings+further++showed+that+students+who+lacked+the+necessary+computer+skills+tended+to++have+negative+attitudes+towards+computer+usage.+Despite+the+overall++positive+attitudes+towards+the+computer%2C+it+was+clearly+evident+that+the++students+felt+that+teachers+were+indispensable.+They+generally+felt++that+their+teachers+would+be+able+to+give+better+explanations+than+the++computers%2C+which+to+them+were+%22mere+machines%22.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThang++and+Olaybal+%282004%29+designed+and+implemented+a+Science+in+English++website+for+Secondary+One+students+in+Malaysia.+The+aim+of+this+website++was+to+provide+Science+in+English+resources+tailored+to+the+needs+of+the++Malaysian+Secondary+One+students.+This+website+provided+an+avenue+for++students+to+enrich+and+deepen+their+knowledge+in+science+and+at+the+same++time+enhance+their+English+Language+skills.+The+results+showed+keen++support+for+the+website+from+the+ten+teachers+and+fifty+students+who++tried+out+the+website.+They+found+the+website+beneficial%2C+fun+and++entertaining.+They+also+described+the+website+as+encouraging++self-exploration+and+autonomy.+However%2C+infrastructure+problems%2C+such+as++lack+of+Internet+access+for+a+large+proportion+of+Malaysian+students+at++home+and+limited+access+to+computers+in+schools+hindered+the++effectiveness+of+this+mode+of+learning.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EDescription+of+the+online+ESP+course%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThis%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fpkukmweb.ukm.my%2F%257Eautolearner%2FEST_Modules%2FCourseDesc.htm%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEnglish+for+Science+and+Technology+course%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%28ZH2042%29++is+compulsory+for+all+first-year+undergraduates+of+the+Faculty+of++Science+and+Technology%2C+UKM+who+obtain+a+minimum+of+bands+3+and+4+in+the++Malaysian+University+English+Test+%28MUET%29.+ZH2042+is+designed+with+the++aim+of+providing+the+Science+and+Technology+undergraduate+students+the++necessary+language+skills+to+deal+with+the+multitude+of+scientific++reading+materials+in+English+and+to+enable+them+to+use+English+in+short++and+extended+writing+and+in+oral+presentations+on+topics+in+various++fields+of+science.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EZH2042++is+a+two-unit+course+with+four+class+hours+per+week+for+fourteen+weeks.++The+online+component+was+an+innovation+to+the+course.+The+subjects+of++the+present+study+was+the+first+group+to+try+out+the+online+ESP+course.++This+online+course+was+designed+to+complement+and+not+to+replace+the++face-to-face%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fpkukmweb.ukm.my%2F%257Eautolearner%2FEST_Modules%2FCourseDesc.htm%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEnglish+for+Science+and+Technology+course%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E.++The+guided+lessons+and+interactive+exercises+and+activities%2Ftasks+aim++at+helping+students+handle+scientific+materials+in+English+more++effectively.+They+reinforce+what+the+students+learnt+in+class+and+give++them+an+opportunity+to+increase+their+command+of+vocabulary+and+their++ICT+skills.+This+hopefully+will+increase+their+interest+and+motivation++to+read+scientific+texts+on+their+own.+The+ultimate+goal+of+this+project++is+to+create+awareness+among+the+students+on+the+vast+opportunity+for++language+learning+available+on+the+Internet+and+promote+autonomous+and++lifelong+language+learning+among+these+students.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++online+course+comprises+three+components%2C+namely+%28A%29+Online+interactive++modules%2C+%28B%29+Online+web-based+tasks%2C+and+C%29+Oral+presentation.+The++online+course+was+designed+with+the+use+of+the+%27hot+potatoes%27+software%2C++and+the+management+system+used+was+Moodle+-+both+accessible+free+online.++No+sophisticated+software+or+systems+were+used.+This+was+deemed++unnecessary%2C+as+the+purpose+of+this+course+was+not+to+impress+users+with++advanced+technology+but+to+show+that+simple+online+lessons+devised+with++basic+computer+skills+can+enhance+English+Language+learning.+The++website+address+of+the+online+program+is%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%0D%0A%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fpkukmweb.ukm.my%2F%257Eautolearner%2F%2F%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fpkukmweb.ukm.my%2F%7Eautolearner%2F%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ESince++the+present+study+only+evaluated+students%27+responses+to+the+online++interactive+modules%2C+the+other+components+will+not+be+described+here.++The+online+interactive+modules+comprise+four+modules.+The+first+three++modules+contain+lessons%2C+exercises+and+reinforcement+activities+in+the++form+of+interactive+tasks.+The+first+module+contains+explanation+on++reading+skills+and+strategies+required+for+effective+reading.+The+skills++and+strategies+taught+include+skimming%2C+scanning%2C+recognizing+main++ideas+and+supporting+ideas%2C+and+note+taking.+The+reinforcement++activities%2Ftasks+include+completing+lists+and+diagrams+like+mind+maps++and+charts.+The+lessons+were+sourced+from+the+Internet+and+the++activities%2Ftasks+prepared+by+the+IRPA+team+members.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++next+module+teaches+general+vocabulary+skills+and+functions+of++reference+words.+The+lessons+and+exercises+for+this+module+were+taken++from+a+course+book+entitled+%22VE1043%3A+Reading+Skills+%28Adul+Aziz+et+al.%2C++1986%29.+This+book+was+written+by+a+group+of+lecturers+from+the+School+of++Language+Studies+and+Linguistics%2C+UKM.+The+third+module+introduces+the++various+methods+of+classifying+scientific+texts.+These+include++classifying%2C+comparing%2C+cause+and+effect%2C+hypothesizing%2C+defining%2C++exemplifying%2C+and+predicting.+The+lessons+and+activities%2Ftasks+were++prepared+by+the+IRPA+team+but+ideas+for+the+materials+were+drawn+from++Zimmerman+%281989%29.+The+last+module+consists+of+five+reading+passages++followed+by+reading+comprehension+questions%2C+exercises+and++activities%2Ftasks+to+reinforce+the+lessons+taught+in+the+first+three++modules.+The+passages+were+taken+from+the+Internet+and+Scientific++magazines.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++lessons%2C+exercises+and+activities%2Ftasks+%28all+hereafter+referred+to+as++lessons+for+convenience%29+in+the+four+modules+were+designed+in+line+with++the+principles+of+learning+theories+applicable+to+online+language++learning.+In+this+section%2C+I+will+provide+some+examples+of+how+the++online+modules+utilize+these+principles.+For+example%2C+in+general%2C+the++modules+adhere+to+the+principles+of+behaviourism+by+providing+immediate++feedback+to+the+lessons+so+that+learners+can+evaluate+and+assess+their++progress.+Besides+that%2C+the+materials+are+designed+sequentially+from++easy+to+difficult.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++accordance+with+the+cognitivism+principle+that+recommends+the++accommodation+of+students%27+different+learning+styles%2C+abilities+and++interests%2C+the+online+course+allows+students+to+choose+the+lessons+they++prefer+to+attempt+first+and+to+leave+out+those+they+do+not+like+%28though+a++few+lessons+were+made+compulsory%29.+This+fosters+autonomy+which+is+line++with+the+principles+of+Constructivism.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++lessons+on+reading+skills+and+strategies+abide+by+the+principle+of++cognitivism+that+recommends+the+organization+of+materials+in+the+form+of++mind+maps+to+show+major+concepts+in+a+topic+and+the+relationship++between+them.+In+addition%2C+students+are+provided+with+authentic++scientific+materials+that+can+help+to+increase+metacognitive+awareness++of+the+learning+process%2C+as+well+as+encourage+applications+of+knowledge++in+different+and+in+real-life+situations.+Finally%2C+the+email+exchanges++and+the+online+forums+give+students+an+opportunity+to+engage+in+an++active+dialogue+with+their+peers+and+instructor.+This+will+provide+the++necessary+feedback+for+instructors+to+further+improve+the+course+and++have+a+better+understanding+of+the+needs+and+requirements+of+the++learners.+Thus%2C+learning+will+be+situated+and+contextualised+according++to+the+principles+of+Constructivism.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+Research+Methods%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++present+study+combined+quantitative+and+qualitative+approaches.+The++quantitative+component+was+in+the+form+of+multiple-choice+items+in+an++online+questionnaire+%28QEPC%29+that+evaluated+students%27+responses+to+a++passage+entitled+%22Copper%22+%28which+was+one+of+the+passages+in+Module++Four%29.+The+qualitative+component+was+in+the+form+of+an+online+forum+and++open-ended+items+in+the+QEPC.+As+pointed+out+by+Denzin+%281970%29+using+a++combination+of+approaches+to+assess+the+same+research+problem+will++improve+the+claim+on+the+validity+of+the+attained+conclusions+since+data++are+more+valid+if+generated+by+more+than+one+technique.+If+the+data++gathered+by+the+two+different+approaches+are+consistent%2C+they+should+be++integrated+with+one+another.+This+will+increase+the+validity+and++generalizability+of+the+data.+However%2C+if+the+data+cannot+be+easily++integrated+than+further+investigation+should+be+considered+to+find+out++the+reasons+for+the+inconsistencies.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ESubjects%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThis++study+traced+the+responses+of+twenty-three+students+towards+the+online++interactive+modules+over+a+period+of+six+weeks.+The+subjects+were++first-year+undergraduates+enrolled+in+an+English+for+Science+and++Technology+course+in+UKM.+Subjects+comprised+two+males+and+twenty-one++females+aged+between+twenty-one+and+thirty-+one+except+for+one+who+was++above+thirty-one.+There+were+equal+number+of+Malays+and+Chinese++students.+The+students+were+generally+of+average+proficiency+level+in++English.+Eighteen+out+of+twenty-one+of+them+scored+bands+3+and+4+in+the++Malaysian+University+English+Test+%28MUET%29.+Learners+in+these+bands+are++classified+as+%22modest%22+and+%22competent+users%22+according+to+the+MUET++scale.+The+other+three+students+scored+band+5+%28classified+as+%22good++users%22%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETraining+Procedures%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++students+were+given+two+training+sessions+to+familiarize+them+with+the++online+interactive+modules.+In+the+first+training+session+they+were++introduced+to+the+various+modules+and+taught+how+to+utilize+them.+The++students+were+allowed+a+certain+degree+of+independence+in+that+they+were++asked+to+undertake+the+online+lessons+during+their+free+time+outside++class+hours.+However%2C+they+were+told+that+they+had+to+complete+certain++sections+of+the+online+modules+and+submit+them+online+for+assessment.+No++time+frame+was+given+in+order+to+allow+for+flexibility+and+autonomy.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EDuring++the+second+training+session%2C+the+students+were+encouraged+to+talk+about++the+problems+encountered+while+trying+out+the+online+lessons.+Most+of++the+students+expressed+unhappiness+over+the+fact+that+they+had+to+fork++out+money+to+perform+the+online+lessons+in+the+UKM+main+library+and++cyber+cafes.+To+ease+their+burden%2C+students+were+then+offered+the++opportunity+to+access+the+Internet+free-of-charge+for+three+hours+every++Wednesday+from+2+pm+to+5+pm+in+the+computer+laboratory+at+the+School+of++Language+Studies+and+Linguistics%2C+UKM.+A+facilitator+was+present+at++these+sessions+to+solve+any+arising+technical+problems+or+to+answer+any++questions+regarding+their+online+modules.+The+students+were+also++encouraged+to+participate+in+the+online+forum+and+to+email+their++instructor+if+they+had+any+problems+regarding+the+course.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EData+Collection+and+Analysis+Procedures%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EStudents%27+attitudes+and+reactions+towards+this+online+course+were+collected+in+two+ways%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%281%29+Students%27+responses+to+the+online+forum%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EStudents++were+invited+to+submit+their+views+regarding+the+online+course+to+an++online+forum.+Here%2C+they+could+post+their+opinions%2C+problems+and++suggestions+for+improving+the+online+modules.+In+addition%2C+they+could++reply+to+their+classmates%27+messages+or+difficulties.+Participation+was++not+obligatory+but+encouraged.+The+responses+to+the+forum+were+analyzed++qualitatively+by+looking+for+pattern+of+communalities.%C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%282%29+Evaluation+of+the+passage+%22Copper%22%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++online+QEPC+for+the+online+passage+consisted+of+both+multiple-choice++items+and+open-ended+items.+The+QEPC+was+designed+to+collect+data+on+the++students%27+opinions+of+the+contents+as+well+as+the+format+of+the+passage++%28see+Appendix+I+for+a+sample+questionnaire%29.+The+multiple-choice+items++were+analyzed+quantitatively+by+percentage+counts+and+the+open-ended++items+were+used+to+support+the+quantitative+data+where+applicable.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EStudents%27+Responses+to+the+Online+Forum%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++feedback+received+can+be+classified+into+three+main+types%2C+namely+the++students%27+opinions%2C+the+problems+they+faced+while+performing+the+online++lessons+and+their+suggestions+for+improvements.+The+finding+revealed++that+fourteen+out+of+twenty-three+students+%28i.e.+60.9%25%29+participated+in++the+forum.+All+of+them+had+positive+opinions+regarding+the+online++course.+Their+positive+comments+ranged+from+tentative+remarks+like+the++course+was+%27quite+good%27%2C+%27quite+ok%27+and+%27quite+interesting+and+unique%27%2C++and+%27informative%27%2C+to+more+encouraging+ones+like+%27helpful+indeed%27%2C++%27certainly+useful%27+and+%27flexible%27%2C+to+remarks+that+showed+strong++approval+such+as%3A+%27%E2%80%A6well+done%21%21+Keep+up+with+the+good+jobs%21%21%21%21++Thanks%E2%80%A6.%27%2C+%27%E2%80%A6so+I+hope+this+online+course+will+last+forever.%27%2C+and++%27anyway+thanks+a+lot+for+the+effort+u+have+make+it+done%21%27.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ENine++of+them+%2864%25%29+indicated+that+the+online+lessons+helped+them+to+improve++their+English+and+computer+skills.+Some+of+their+comments+were%3A%3C%2Fs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and teacher education: Issues in course design%3Ch3+class%3D%22post-title+entry-title%22%3E%0D%0A+CALL+and+teacher+education%3A+Issues+in+course+design+%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22post-header%22%3E%0D%0A++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22border-collapse%3A+separate%3B+color%3A+black%3B+font-family%3A+%27Times+New+Roman%27%3B+font-size%3A+x-small%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+font-variant%3A+normal%3B+font-weight%3A+normal%3B+letter-spacing%3A+normal%3B+line-height%3A+normal%3B+orphans%3A+2%3B+text-indent%3A+0px%3B+text-transform%3A+none%3B+white-space%3A+normal%3B+widows%3A+2%3B+word-spacing%3A+0px%3B%22%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22border-collapse%3A+separate%3B+color%3A+black%3B+font-family%3A+%27Times+New+Roman%27%3B+font-size%3A+x-small%3B+font-style%3A+normal%3B+font-variant%3A+normal%3B+font-weight%3A+normal%3B+letter-spacing%3A+normal%3B+line-height%3A+normal%3B+orphans%3A+2%3B+text-indent%3A+0px%3B+text-transform%3A+none%3B+white-space%3A+normal%3B+widows%3A+2%3B+word-spacing%3A+0px%3B%22%3E%3Cdiv+style%3D%22background-color%3A+%23ffffdd%3B+color%3A+%23333333%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22outline%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+4em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22journal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cul+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.2em%3B+list-style-type%3A+none%3B+margin%3A+0em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EISSN+1442-438X%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ECALL-EJ+Online%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EVol.+1%2C+No.+2%2C+September+1999%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+2em+5em%3B+text-align%3A+center%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch2%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3C%2Fh2%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+4em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cul+style%3D%22list-style-type%3A+none%3B+margin%3A+0em+0em+1em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em+0em+0em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMarcia+Johnson%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+University+of+Waikato%2C+New+Zealand%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22article%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIntroduction%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAs++the+use+of+computer-assisted+language+learning+%28CALL%29+grows+worldwide++%28Fidelman%2C+1998%29%2C+university+courses+to+inform+language+teachers+about++CALL+applications+are+also+increasing.+Given+that+the+role+of+the++teacher+in+computer-mediated+education+requires+some+rethinking+and++redefinition%2C+it+is+important+for+practitioners+to+understand+the++pedagogical+issues+related+to+technological+change+%28McWilliams+%26amp%3B++Taylor%2C+1998%29+and+to+be+aware+of+current+perspectives+on+the+roles+and++functions+of+CALL.+For+example%2C+some+enthusiasts+view+CALL+as+an++innovative+teaching+technique+in+which+computers+play+a+central+role%3B++others+view+CALL+as+a+functional+%Eb%(0%9Cadd-on%E2%80%9D+to+conventional+lessons%3B+while++still+others+in+the+language+teaching+profession+believe+that+computers++make+no+significant+contribution+at+all+to+language+teaching+and++learning.+Evaluating+competing+claims+can+be+a+difficult%2C+confusing++task%2C+and+in+teacher+education+programmes%2C+it+is+clear+that+courses+need++to+cover+more+than+just+the+technical+background+to+CALL.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIdentifying%2C++exploring%2C+and+discussing+key+issues+in+the+area+of+CALL+are+essential++if+teachers+are+to+learn+how+to+make+informed+choices+about+computer++use.+CALL+courses+which+focus+primarily+on+how+to+%E2%80%9Csurf+the+net%E2%80%9D+to+find++instructional+materials+or+construct+web+sites+are+inadequate+and+are++reminiscent+of+computing+studies+curricula+of+the+1980s+%28Collis+%26amp%3B++Muir%2C+1986%29.+At+that+time%2C+a+common+complaint+was+that+the+focus+of++instruction+in+educational+computing+was+on+programming+languages+and++general+machine-handling+skills+without+detailed+consideration+of+the++curricular+or+contextual+limitations+within+which+computers+would+be++used.+Perhaps+similar+observations+could+be+made+about+the+current+state++of+CALL+in+second+language+teacher+education+%28SLTE%29+programs.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETo++meet+the+new+challenges+and+directions+of+CALL+for+teacher+education%2C++we+recognized+the+need+for+courses+that+addressed+a+wider+range+of++issues.+Further%2C+and+more+generally+in+second+language+teacher+education++%28SLTE%29+programmes%2C+there+is+a+need+to+help+teachers+develop+skills+in++autonomous+learning+and+self-reflection+so+as+to+help+them+refine+and++improve+their+classroom+practice.+Computers+can+play+a+role+in++developing+these+skills.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThis++paper+will+discuss+the+design%2C+development%2C+and+on-going+evaluation+of+a++CALL+component+which+has+recently+been+incorporated+into+two++postgraduate+university+degree+programmes+%E2%80%94+one+in+second+language++teaching+and+the+other+in+Applied+Linguistics.+Discussion+will+focus+on++the+activities%2C+decisions%2C+and+developments+in+the+introductory-level++CALL+course+%28similar+issues+affected+design+of+the+more+specialist+CALL++courses%2C+but+will+not+be+discussed+here%29+and+will+be+framed+within+a++general+description+of+aspects+of+the+institutional+setting+and+degree++programmes.+An+overview+of+course+content+and+instructional+approaches++will+be+provided+and+implications+for+teaching+and+learning+discussed.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EOverview+of+the+setting%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EOur++academic+year+runs+from+March+to+October.+During+1997+and+1998%2C+three++CALL+courses+were+introduced+into+the+two+postgraduate+degree+programmes++in+Applied+Linguistics+at+the+University+of+Waikato%2C+Hamilton%2C+New++Zealand.+Prior+to+the+introduction+of+these+courses+%28one+at+the++Postgraduate+Diploma+in+Second+Language+Teaching+%28PGDipSLT%29+level+and++two+at+the+Masters+level%29%2C+both+programmes+had+been+based+entirely+on+an++instructional+format+in+which+students+met+with+their+teacher+on+a++weekly+basis%2C+were+assigned+a+variety+of+print-based+readings%2C+and+wrote++three+major+assignments+within+12-week+courses.+Six+courses+were++required+for+successful+completion+of+the+PGDipSLT+and+four+were++required+at+the+MA%28Applied%29+level.+It+was+becoming+increasingly+clear%2C++however%2C+that+there+were+problems+with+the+structure+of+the+two++programmes%2C+their+courses%2C+and+methods+of+course+delivery+and+assessment++as+they+related+to+the+particular+needs+of+the+student+groups.%3C%2Fspano3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAll++students+in+our+programmes+are+adult+learners+with+busy+lives+outside++of+the+university+%28many+are+engaged+in+full-time+employment+as+language++teachers%29.+Because+of+the+constraints+of+their+professional+careers%2C++many+students+come+to+the+university+only+to+attend+courses.+Also%2C+a++significant+number+of+our+students+are+from+non-native+English+speaking++backgrounds+%28NESBs%29.+In+practical+terms%2C+this+has+meant+that+a+sense+of++%E2%80%9Con-campus%E2%80%9D+community+was+lacking+for+many+students+in+our+programmes++due+either+to+their+work+and+family+commitments+or+to+the+challenges+of++reading%2C+writing%2C+and+speaking+in+English+%28or+a+combination+of+these++factors%29.+Also%2C+some+students+reported+feeling+lonely+and+academically++isolated.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EFurther%2C++as+the+use+of+computers+in+language+teaching+increases%2C+students+in+our++programmes+have+been+showing+interest+in+using+and+evaluating+computers++and+software+in+their+own+instructional+contexts.+It+was+also+clear+to++us+that+on-line+instruction+has+implications+not+only+for+language+study++and+graduate+courses+%28for+example%2C+students+are+now+able+to+study++anywhere+in+the+world%2C+without+having+to+leave+home%29%2C+but+also+for+the++entire+university+community.+These+various+considerations+%E2%80%94+the+types+of++students+enrolled+in+our+degree+programmes%2C+the+increasing+prevalence++of+computers+in+language+teaching%2C+and+new+modes+of+delivering++instruction+in+higher+education+%E2%80%94+all+helped+to+shape+and+influence+our++second+language+teacher+education+CALL+course.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++addition%2C+there+were+several+more+specific+aspects+of+course+design++which+shaped+and+influenced+our+decisions+about+the+CALL+course.+The++first+included+typical+design+concerns%2C+such+as%2C+identifying+appropriate++subject+area+content+and+materials+and+their+sequencing.+Other+aspects%2C++including+the+selection+and+use+of+instructional+techniques+and+methods++of+organizing+student+assessment%2C+needed+to+include+explicit++consideration+both+of+student+needs+and+of+issues+related+to+teaching++and+learning+in+cyberspace.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EChanging++to+an+instructional+format+based+on+distance%2C+on-line+delivery+is++complex.+Revising+courses+to+an+on-line+format+includes+several+stages++and+involves+much+more+than+simply+loading+conventional+course+content++into+web-based+delivery+systems+%E2%80%94+particularly+if+such+software+is++concerned+primarily+with+content+presentation+and+discrete+item+testing.++The+issue+of+appropriate+on-line+educational+formats%2C+while+important++across+the+university%2C+is+particularly+key+in+second+language+teacher++education+in+which+students+are+developing+knowledge+and+skills+in+a++variety+of+approaches+to+language+teaching.+For+example%2C+we+are++concerned+with+introducing+and+discussing+issues+of+reflective+practice%2C++alternative+assessment+in+the+language+classroom%2C+and+practical+methods++for+fostering+collaboration+amongst+practitioners.+We+are+not++particularly+concerned+with+having+students+master+a+body+of+%E2%80%9Cfacts%E2%80%9D+to++be+regurgitated+on+examinations.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EConsiderations+for+CALL+course+design%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++the+case+of+the+course+being+described+in+this+paper%2C+the+problem+of++how+to+design+instruction+which+not+only+included+content+and+issues++relevant+to+CALL%2C+but+also+developed+students%27+technical+proficiency+was++complex.+Issues+related+to+reflective+practice+and+autonomous+learning++also+needed+to+be+explicitly+considered+in+the+course+design%2C+and+this++added+to+the+complexity.+The+following+discussion+describes+the+design++process+within+a+framework+of+content+and+assessment+concerns+as+well+as++theories+of+second+language+pedagogy%2C+including+autonomous+learning+and++reflective+practice.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EContent+concerns%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMany++%28if+not+most%29+of+the+students+enrolling+in+the+PGDipSLT+CALL+course++have+had+limited+background+and+experience+using+computers+and+are++unfamiliar+both+with+computing+terminology+and+CALL+concepts.+This++raised+a+variety+of+issues+when+assembling+course+readings.+Most+general++computer+science+books+are+too+technical+for+our+novice+computer+users%3B++many+CALL-specific+books+lack+a+theoretical+perspective%3B+and+most+books++in+computers+in+education+are+too+general.+Although+there+is+an++enormous%2C+and+growing%2C+body+of+CALL+literature+available+on+the+Web%2C++searching+for+and+locating+appropriate+research+articles+is+extremely++time-consuming.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EWhat++was+also+important+for+the+location+and+structuring+of+content+was+our++recognition+that+the+field+of+CALL+is+an+emerging+one%2C+and+that+there+is++no+accepted+%E2%80%9Cdogma%E2%80%9D+which+could%2C+or+should%2C+dictate+the+inclusion+of++different+types+of+content.+We+wanted+to+include+a+range+of++representative+views+of+CALL+so+that+students+could+become+aware+of+the++richness+of+the+various+arguments+about+the+role+and+significance+of++CALL.+In+addition%2C+it+was+important+to+provide+opportunities+in+the++course+for+students+to+participate+in+locating+resources+for+students+to++identify+and+locate+resources+relevant+to+their+own+particular++instructional+contexts%2C+to+contribute+to+class+discussions+on+an++on-going+basis%2C+and+to+work+collaboratively.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EInitially%2C++we+adopted+two+core+texts+for+the+course%2C+assembled+a+variety+of++articles+from+print-based+and+on-line+sources%2C+and+organized+a+series+of++readings+into+four+general+areas%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+context+of+CALL%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETechnology%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ESoftware+evaluation%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELanguage+skill+areas%3A+reading%2C+writing%2C+listening%2C+and+speaking.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EWithin++these+topic+areas%2C+students+learn+about+the+history+of+computers+in++education+and+CALL+and+different+conceptual+frameworks+for+considering++CALL+research%2C+technical+terminology+and+basic+networking+concepts%2C++different+approaches+and+ways+of+thinking+about+software+evaluation%2C+and++CALL+applications+within+the+skill+areas+of+reading%2C+writing%2C++listening%2C+and+speaking.+A+fifth+area%2C+%E2%80%9CCALL+in+the+classroom%E2%80%9D%2C+in+which++we+discuss+focused+examples+of+CALL+implementations+%28%E2%80%9Chow+to+do+CALL%E2%80%9D%29++has+been+added+recently+as+a+result+of+student+feedback+about+CALL++topics+they+want+to+explore+more+deeply.+A+selected+CALL+bibliography++can+be+referenced+at+the+end+of+this+paper.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAutonomous+learning%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EContent++concerns+were+only+one+aspect+of+course+design.+Throughout+many+of+the++courses+in+our+programmes%2C+students+encounter+a+variety+of+literature++discussing+the+principles+and+significance+of+autonomous+learning.+It++would+probably+be+safe+to+say+that+the+majority+of+students+support+the++principles+of+autonomous+learning+%E2%80%94+at+least+in+theory+and+as+they++relate+to+their+future+language+students.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHowever%2C++some+students+in+our+programmes+are+reluctant+to+adopt+these+ideas+into++their+own+learning+in+spite+of+accepting+the+principles+of+autonomous++learning.+In+spite+of+changes+to+how+some+of+our+courses+are+taught%2C++most+students+have+become+accustomed+to+a+model+of+higher+education+in++which+they+are+passive+receivers+of+knowledge%2C+in+the+form+of+lectures%2C++from+their+teachers+%28the+experts%29.+In+many+tertiary-level+degree++programmes+%28in+New+Zealand+and+elsewhere%29%2C+students+are+seldom++challenged+to+take+responsibility+for+the+direction+of+their+own++learning.+Although+delving+more+deeply+into+this+issue+is+not+the++purpose+of+this+paper%2C+the+fact+remains+that+for+many+of+our+students%2C++%E2%80%9Cautonomous+learning%E2%80%9D+is+merely+a+concept+they+have+encountered+in++course+readings%2C+and+it+does+not+have+much+personal+relevance.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETeacher+reflection%2C+peer+evaluation%2C+and+assessment+issues%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELikewise%2C++although+some+of+our+courses%2C+particularly+at+the+PGDipSLT+level%2C+use++peer+evaluation+and+self-assessment+%28as+techniques+to+develop+reflective++practitioners%29%2C+the+feedback+students+receive+in+these+courses+is++frequently+more+summative+than+formative.+Students+practice+%E2%80%9Creflection%E2%80%9D++as+a+technique+to+improve+their+final+grade+in+the+course%2C+but++structures+to+support+on-going+reflection+as+an+essential+component+of++courses+in+our+programmes+have+been+lacking.+As+mentioned+earlier%2C+many++courses+have+followed+a+%E2%80%9Ctraditional%E2%80%9D+model%2C+in+which+the+lecturer++provides+pre-digested+course+content%2C+in+the+form+of+lectures%2C+and+all++students+submit+their+version+of+the+same+assignment.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThis++format+of+instruction+has+the+tendency+to+foster+passivity+on+the+part++of+students%2C+extremely+low+levels+of+compliance+with+reading++assignments%2C+and+uneven+quality+in+submitted+essays.+Also%2C+when+there++are+only+three+chances+to+demonstrate+proficiency+during+a+course%2C+and++only+one+acceptable+task+type+%28academic+essay+writing%29%2C+validity+of+the++assessment+is+highly+questionable.+Moreover%2C+this+style+of+assessment++has+proven+to+be+particularly+problematic+for+students+who+are++non-native+English+speakers+%28NESB%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+instructional+approach%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EObjectives%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThere++are+four+main+objectives+which+have+guided+the+design%2C+development%2C+and++implementation+of+the+CALL+course%2C+and+the+issues+described+above+have++provided+a+contextual+framework+within+which+design+decisions+have+been++made.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EFirst%2C++we+wanted+to+teach+students+about+computers+in+language+learning+by++having+them+use+computers+to+find+and+evaluate+information+relevant+to++their+academic+and+professional+needs.+Second%2C+we+wanted+to+use++computer-mediated+communication+%28CMC%29+as+a+tool+to+encourage+and+support++autonomous+learning+and+to+facilitate+reflective+practice.+Third%2C+we++wanted+to+develop+mechanisms+for+using+CMC+as+a+means+to+develop+and++sustain+a+sense+of+community+among+students.+And%2C+finally%2C+we+needed+to++be+mindful+of+practical+and+economic+constraints+from+both+the+students%27++and+the+department%27s+perspectives.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++order+to+accomplish+our+inter-related+aims%2C+assessment+and+classroom++management+procedures+needed+to+change+significantly.+Swain%27s+idea+of++%E2%80%9Cbias+for+best%E2%80%9D+%281983%29+influenced+our+thinking+about+the+design+of++assessment+tasks+and+task+types+so+that+students+could+express++themselves+in+a+variety+of+different+formats+and+have+many+%E2%80%9Cfresh++starts%E2%80%9D.+In+addition%2C+CMC+was+used+as+a+structural+support+for+sharing++information%2C+discussing+ideas%2C+and+creating+a+community+of+learners.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EA++relatively+%E2%80%9Clow-tech%E2%80%9D+%28inexpensive%29+approach+to+course+design+included++the+establishment+of+an+email+listserv+on+one+of+the+university%27s++servers%2C+the+careful+selection+and+purchase+of+exemplary+software+to++demonstrate+different+approaches+to+CALL%2C+and+the+collection+of++print-based+materials+reflecting+different+perspectives+on+CALL.+Our++decision+not+to+bundle+all+course+content+into+a+unit+in+web-based++software+was+deliberate.+We+did+not+want+to+deliver+%E2%80%9Ccanned%E2%80%9D+lectures++followed+by+discrete+item+testing%2C+but+rather+wanted+to+build+and++nurture+an+online+community+of+collaborating+peers.+We+believed+that++having+the+course+delivered+in+a+presentational%2C+rather+than+discursive++mode%2C+would+be+ineffective+for+nurturing+student+reflection+or++interactive+shar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%2C++1994%29+that+students+experience+enhanced+achievement+through+access+to++peer+feedback+and+discussion+by+Computer-Mediated+Communication+%28CMC%29.++This+applies+particularly+to+the+development+of+writing+especially+when++interaction+occurs+with+more+capable+peers%2C+a+feature+that+is++particularly+relevant+to+the+use+of+CMC+to+provide+contact+with+native++speakers+and+other+learners+of+a+foreign+language.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EReports++from+the+foreign+language+classroom+%28Barson%2C+Frommer+%26amp%3B+Schwartz%2C++1993%3B+Oliva+%26amp%3B+Pollastrini%3B+1995%3B+Poyatos%2C+1996%29+have+confirmed++learning+outcomes+similar+to+those+documented+from+regular+classrooms.++Oliva+and+Pollastrini+%281995%29+conclude+that+Internet+resources+when+used++to+allow+students+to+communicate+with+native+speakers+are+conducive+to++fostering+second+language+acquisition.+Moreover%2C+the+language+teachers++involved+in+these+projects+have+suggested+benefits+in+all+language++skills+including+the+development+of+grammar%2C+and+it+has+been+found++%28Kern%2C+1995%3B+Warschauer%2C+1996%29+that+students%27+linguistic+output+has+been++more+complex+at+lexical+and+syntactical+levels+than+when+they+are++engaged+in+face-to-face+interaction.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++recent+years%2C+a+growing+body+of+research+has+suggested+that+conscious++reflection+on+learning+may+contribute+to+positive+learning+outcomes++through+the+development+of+learner+autonomy+%28Ellis%2C+1994%3B+Little%3B+1996%3B++Rutherford%2C+1987+and+Van+Lier%2C+1996%29.+Furthermore%2C+the+research+studies++of+Lamy+and+Goodfellow+%281999%29+have+suggested+that+%E2%80%9Clearners+engaging+in++reflective+online+conversations+may+be+more+likely+to+notice+formal++features+of+the+target+language+than+they+would+in+other+kinds+of++exchanges%E2%80%9D+%28p.+60%29.+However%2C+in+spite+of+considerable+speculation++concerning+the+benefits+of+the+use+of+email+and+the+Internet+for+the++development+and+acquisition+of+grammar+in+foreign+language+learners%2C++there+are+no+empirical+studies+based+on+consistent+longitudinal+data++collection+which+describe+the+efficacy+and+implementation+of+different++grammar+teaching+and+learning+approaches+with+or+without+the+support+of++Computer-Mediated+Communication.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+aims+of+the+project+and+their+evolution%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThis++longitudinal+study+started+in+February+1998+and+will+be+completed+in++2001.+The+first+two+stages+of+the+project+have+been+completed+and+that++is+why+they+are+being+reported+in+this+paper%2C+as+they+provide+relevant++information+about+the+research+design+and+initial+implementation+of+this++study.+The+initial+aim+of+the+research+project+was+to+compare+two+broad++approaches+to+the+improvement+of+the+grammatical+accuracy+of+students++in+French+immersion+programs.+One+approach+involved+Australian+students++in+a+French+immersion+program+interacting+with+students+in+France+and++Canada+via+email+and+the+Internet+with+a+view+to+producing+a++collaborative+electronic+magazine.+The+other+approach+involved+another++group+of+Australian+French+immersion+students+receiving+explicit++grammatical+instruction+integrated+with+content+subjects+in+the++immersion+program.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHowever%2C++it+was+found+that+in+order+to+respect+the+pedagogic+integrity+of+one+of++the+participating+schools%2C+it+was+necessary+to+broaden+the+scope+of+our++investigation.+It+was+found+during+the+pilot+stage+that+the+school+that++was+to+use+only+the+Internet+was+in+fact+teaching+French+grammar++classes+that+were+not+integrated+with+immersion+content+subjects.+As+a++consequence%2C+the+initial+aim+was+changed+to+document+and+assess+the++influence+that+four+different+approaches+to+grammar+teaching+and++learning+may+have+on+French+immersion+students%27+grammatical+and+written++development.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThese+approaches+are%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+st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-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMost++do+not+specify+equipment+requirements%2C+which+presumably+means+that+a++web+browser+is+enough.+Others%2C+however%2C+encourage+students+to+utilise++video+and+audio+facilities+linked+to+their+computer.+Clearly%2C+the+more++complex+the+setup%2C+the+more+advanced+a+student%27s+computer+literacy+needs++to+be.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Col+start%3D%224%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHow+do+the+schools+organise+their+teaching+programs%3F%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ESome++schools+run+%E2%80%98terms%E2%80%99+starting+on+specific+days+and+running+for+a+fixed++number+of+weeks%3B+some+are+continuous%2C+offering+materials+whenever+a++student+wants+them%3B+some+require+online+attendance+at+specific+times+and++on+specific+days.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++majority+of+the+schools+we+investigated+offer+a+%E2%80%98course%E2%80%99+of+lessons++followed+by+feedback+from+the+teacher+%288%2C+10%2C+11%2C+16%2C+17%2C+19%2C+29%29.+Some++of+them+offer+a+%E2%80%98conferencing+centre%E2%80%99+which+is+in+essence+an+email++listserver+that+students+can+use+either+for+messages+to+each+other+or++for+the+teacher+to+communicate+to+the+students+%2824%2C+26%2C+30%29.+The+most++ambitious+schools+attempt+to+recreate+the+college+atmosphere+by+offering++semester-long+courses+and+encourage+students+to+have+a+video+camera+and++an+audio+link+to+the+teacher+and+to+the+rest+of+the+%E2%80%98class%E2%80%99+using++Microsoft%27s+NetMeeting+software+%285%2C+20%2C+22%2C+23%2C+28%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThere++are+a+surprising+number+of+blank+squares+in+our+table+%E2%80%94+most+worrying++perhaps+are+the+ones+in+the+%E2%80%98Cost%E2%80%99+column.+We+found+none+with+a+formal++syllabus+posted+on+their+site.+One%2C+Number+28%2C+based+its+courses+round+a++published+textbook%2C+which+could+be+seen+as+a+form+of+syllabus.+Few+even++attempt+to+indicate+that+they+follow+a+particular+a+teaching++philosophy.+It+is+possible+that+we+may+have+missed+some+of+the++information+when+we+searched+the+sites%3B+however%2C+if+we+were+capable+of++missing+them+then+it+is+most+likely+that+potential+students+will+miss++them+too.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEnrolment+levels%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++level+of+attendance+at+these+cyberschools+is+hard+to+gauge.+Many+of+the++schools+demand+an+up-front+payment+before+enrolment%2C+and+give+no++indication+of+how+big+the+classes+are.+Occasionally+small+clues+betray++the+size+of+their+enrolment%3A+Compuhigh+%2816%29%2C+for+instance%2C+claims+to++have+a+%E2%80%98daily+posting+responding+to+student+questions%E2%80%99+that+is+freely++accessible+to+the+casual+visitor.+On+the+day+we+looked%2C+there+were+four++postings%2C+one+asked+about+how+to+enrol%2C+one+asked+about+how+to+unenrol%2C++one+asked+about+the+content+of+the+program%2C+and+only+one+had+a+genuine++language+question.+Four+responses+to+questions+indicate+the+likelihood++of+a+very+small+number+of+enrolments.+Another+cyberschool+%2830%29%2C+which++claims+to+have+eight-week+%E2%80%98terms%E2%80%99+running+throughout+the+year%2C+has+not++even+bothered+to+post+the+dates+of+its+terms+beyond+May+1999%2C+probably++indicating+no+students+whatsoever.+This+is+presumably+also+true+of+the++two+schools+we+attempted+to+enrol+into%2C+but+which+did+not+respond+to+us.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+practical+problems+of+cyberschooling%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EStudents++face+a+number+of+problems+that+are+inherent+in+the+uses+of+technology++for+distance+learning%3A+in+particular%2C+a+lack+of+computer+literacy%2C+and++the+need+to+maintain+a+sense+of+purpose+%28in+other+words%2C+the+need+for++strong+motivation%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn+the+cyberschool+arena%2C+these+problems+surface+as%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++need+for+adequate+levels+of+computer+literacy+on+the+part+of+the++students.+The+more+technologically+demanding+a+cyberclassroom+becomes%2C++the+greater+the+number+of+potential+students+there+will+be+who+are+not++able+to+cope+with+the+demands+of+the+equipment.+If+the+concept+of+the++cyberschool+is+that+students+can+work+on+improving+their+English+on++their+own%2C+and+at+whatever+time+they+like%2C+it+is+crucial+that+they+be++able+to+operate+the+equipment+without+having+to+call+on+help+each+time++they+wish+to+use+it.+The+more+advanced+the+technology+becomes%2C+the+more++likely+it+is+that+cyberschooling+will+become+the+restricted+domain+of++the+%E2%80%98cybergeek%E2%80%99+%E2%80%94+typically+a+young+male+whose+main+leisure-time++activity+is+playing+with+and+on+computers.+This+is+hardly+the+clientele++that+the+cyberschool+industry+would+wish+to+end+up+with.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++need+to+maintain+high+levels+of+motivation+on+the+part+of+the+students.++Sandery%27s+comments+quoted+earlier+are+relevant+here%3A+%E2%80%98some+externally++set+deadlines+and+other+structures+may+improve+the+learning+outcomes+for++most+students%E2%80%99.+Outcomes+will+be+enhanced+if+motivation+can+be+kept++high%2C+but+that+is+notoriously+difficult+for+students+working+in++isolation%2C+especially+if+there+are+no+external+deadlines+for+them+to++work+to+or+a+framework+that+helps+them+gauge+their+progress+and+guide++them+onto+the+next+step+in+their+learning.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++timing+of+academic+terms%2Fsemesters%2Ftrimesters+differ+across+the+world%2C++and+so+it+is+often+difficult+to+put+together+an+electronic+class+at+a++date+and+a+time+to+suit+all+participants.+This+is+difficult+enough+for++email+communications%2C+but+it+is+far+more+difficult+for+video-conferenced++classes%2C+as+the+class+depends+on+having+a+group+of+students+sitting+in++front+of+video+cameras+linked+to+computers+for+an+hour+or+more+at+a++specific+time+on+a+specific+day.+A+significant+proportion+of+students++enrolled+into+any+truly+international+web+program+is+likely+to+be++unavailable+at+a+given+time+on+a+given+day.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EDebski++%26amp%3B+Gruba+identify+all+three+of+these+problems+in+the+survey+of++tertiary+instructor+attitudes+that+they+carried+out+in+Melbourne.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMost++of+the+schools+examined+here+do+attempt+to+cope+with+some+of+the+issues++raised+above%3A+if+they+are+unsure+about+the+technology%2C+students+are++encouraged+to+email+for+help%2C+though+they+would+need+to+be+quite++advanced+learners+before+they+were+able+to+describe+their+problem%2C+let++alone+understand+the+instructions+on+how+to+fix+it.+Some+of+the+schools++offer+a+range+of+scheduled+times+for+their+classroom+activities+in+an++attempt+to+cover+different+time+zones%2C+but+this+does+not+overcome+the++problem+of+only+having+a+fraction+of+the+total+student+numbers+available++for+any+one+class.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMotivation++is+an+important+element+in+any+learning+situation.+Warschauer+cites+a++survey+that+he+carried+out+which+indicates+that+using+computers+for++learning+is+motivating+in+itself.+He+identifies+three+factors+that+bring++this+about%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Ecomputers++help+students+fulfil+their+need+to+communicate+with+native+speakers+in++other+countries%2C+with+other+students+and+with+their+teacher%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Ecomputers+help+students+overcome+isolation%2C+and+make+it+less+threatening+for+them+to+contact+people%3B+and%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Emany++students+think+that+computers+can+help+them+learn+better+and+more++independently%3A+they+feel+they+have+more+control+of+their+learning+and++have+more+opportunities+to+practise+English.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIt++should+be+safe+to+assume+that+if+a+student+is+enrolling+into+a++cyberschool+he+or+she+is+already+motivated+by+these+factors.+However%2C+to++maintain+a+student%27s+motivation+to+stay+enrolled+for+any+length+of++time%2C+a+different+set+of+factors+is+required.+Many+of+the+cyberschools++address+this+aspect+of+motivation+by+setting+students+attainable+goals%3A+a++student+is+more+likely+to+stay+online+for+eight+weeks+if+the+class+is++designed+to+last+eight+weeks+%28and+particularly+if+the+student+has+paid++for+all+eight+weeks+up+front%29%2C%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMotivation++is+perhaps+the+hardest+of+all+to+deal+with+at+a+distance%2C+but+it+is++perhaps+the+most+important+of+all+to+overcome+if+students+and+the++cyberschools+are+to+have+successful+outcomes.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ECyberschool%3A+Threat+or+promise%3F%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EOn+the+positive+side%2C+a+common+set+of+characteristics+do+appear+to+be+evolving+among+the+more+ambitious+cyberschools.+These+are%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++typical+school+offers+a+number+of+specialised+courses%2C+ranging+from++basic+English+through+English+for+Special+purposes+and+TOEFL++preparation.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EStudents++can+work+on+a+number+of+web+pages+containing+embedded+scripts+that++consist+of+exercises+in+grammar%2C+vocabulary+and+reading%2C+and+on++listening+comprehension+exercises+using+RealAudio.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EFor+a+fee%2C+students+can+also+submit+written+work+by+email+to+a+teacher+who+will+email+it+back+with+feedback+on+their+writing.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+school+will+have+a+chatroom+where+students+can+communicate+to+each+other+in+English.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIf++the+school+offers+access+to+teachers+that+consists+of+more+than+simple++marking+of+assignments%2C+the+school+will+work+within+specific+%E2%80%98terms%E2%80%99++that+may+be+four+or+eight+weeks+in+length%2C+and+provide+students+with+a++number+of+%E2%80%98assignments%E2%80%99+that+have+to+be+completed+and+submitted+by++email.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+more+adventurous+schools+will+also+offer+%E2%80%98classes%E2%80%99+using+Microsoft%27s+NetMeeting+software+and+student+video+cameras.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThere++is%2C+however%2C+a+significant+negative+side+as+well%2C+all+of+which++currently+militateO+against+successful+uptake+of+cyberschooling%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELack+of+a+human+face%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++industry+%28if+it+can+be+called+that+yet%29+has+a+serious+image+problem.++Most+of+the+sites+are+unwelcoming%2C+with+few+graphics+and+only+a++sprinkling+of+images+of+people+that+would+provide+a+human+%E2%80%98face%E2%80%99+to+the++organisation+behind+the+site.+There+is+the+occasional+photograph+of+an++individual+teacher+or+principal%2C+but+otherwise+most+sites+consist+of++pages+of+form-like+exercises+to+fill+in+and+faceless+emails+to+read.+An++exception+to+this+is%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETestDEN%3A+Your+Personal+TOEFL+Trainer%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%2829%29%2C+which+has+a+particularly+lively%2C+approachable+interface.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELack+of+adequate+information+about+the+schools+and+their+courses%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAs++we+have+already+discussed%2C+many+of+the+sites+offer+incomplete++information%2C+and+what+there+is+often+hard+to+find.+Some+%281%2C+2%29+offer++little+or+no+information+until+after+student+enrols.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EMany++offer+a+set+of+free+exercises+as+a+sample+of+what+is+to+come+once++payment+has+been+made%3A+some+offer+a+free+week%27s+enrolment%2C+but+none++offered+any+kind+of+syllabus+document+that+shows+student+what+they+will++be+studying+and+when.+Even+the+personalised+instruction+offered+by+many++sites+is+not+accompanied+by+examples%2C+which+would+show+potential++students+what+they+can+expect.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EPoor+marketing%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAs++we+have+indicated+earlier%2C+our+brief+experience+of+cyberschools+leads++us+to+suspect+that+very+few+of+these+cyberschools+have+large+enrolments.++The+very+fact+that+they+do+not+mention+student+numbers+makes+us+think++that+enrolments+must+be+in+the+tens+at+the+most.+Of+course+we+may+be++quite+wrong+about+this+%E2%80%94+there+is+no+way+of+telling.+If+we+are+wrong%2C++then+the+more+successful+sites+are+doing+themselves+a+grave+disservice.++In+most+cases%2C+potential+students+are+asked+to+send+their+credit+card++number+to+a+website+on+the+other+side+of+the+world+with+an+authority+to++withdraw+hundreds+of+dollars.+In+a+number+of+cases%2C+the+authority+is+an++ongoing+one+%E2%80%94+the+site+is+authorised+to+keep+withdrawing+the+same+amount++on+a+regular+basis+until+told+to+stop.+Anyone+who+is+contemplating++giving+total+strangers+this+kind+of+access+to+their+money+will+want+to++know+that+the+organisation+behind+the+school+is+legitimate+and+reliable%2C++and+that+the+service+provided+is+of+good+quality%3A+The+best+way+of++showing+that+is+by+telling+potential+customers+how+many+students+are++currently+enrolled+and+how+many+of+these+have+reenrolled.+Nothing+boosts++confidence+like+an+appearance+of+success.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EFurther++examples+of+poor+marketing+skills+are+the+cyberschools+who+offer+little++or+no+information+about+themselves+until+after+a+potential+student+has++sent+details+about+himself.+This+seems+to+be+a+particularly+unwise++strategy+in+the+highly+competitive+web+environment.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22+style%3D%22font-style%3A+italic%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHidden+costs%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3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of Learner Autonomy in Project-Oriented CALL%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+2em+5em%3B+text-align%3A+center%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch2%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EExercise+of+Learner+Autonomy+in+Project-Oriented+CALL%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh2%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+4em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cul+style%3D%22list-style-type%3A+none%3B+margin%3A+0em+0em+1em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em+0em+0em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEtsuko+Toyoda%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22mailto%3Aetsuko%40unimelb.edu.au%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Eetsuko%40unimelb.edu.au%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22text-align%3A+right%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+University+of+Melbourne%2C+Australia%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAbstract%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIncreasingly%2C++the+use+of+modern+technology+is+coupled+with+cooperative+approaches+to++learning.+The+question+is+how+technology+affects+the+exercise+of+learner++autonomy.+By+presenting+evidence+of+critical+incidents+and+learners%27++reactions%2C+this+article+describes+how+technology-related+factors+such+as++computer+literacy+and+beliefs+in+CALL+have+affected+individual++learner%27s+autonomous+learning+in+a+Project-Oriented+Computer+Assisted++Language+Learning+%28PrOCALL%29.+The+findings+suggest+that+technology+can++have+a+positive+impact+on+learner+autonomy+when+learners+have+extensive++experience+with+technology.+However%2C+they+also+suggest+that+it+can+have+a++beneficial+impact+on+autonomy+only+when+learners+perceive+technology+as++a+useful+tool.+The+findings+indicate+that+learners%27+perceptions+vary++largely+according+to+the+level+of+their+computer+literacy+although+the++students%27+perceptions+may+be+modified+through+positive+or+negative++relationships+with+other+students+and+the+teacher.+The+article+concludes++with+three+conditions+necessary+for+successful+autonomous+learning%3A+1%29++accessible+and+reliable+technology%2C+2%29+sufficient+computer+literacy+in++students%2C+and+3%29+good+communication+with+and+support+from+peers.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EKeywords%3A+Learner+autonomy%2C+PrOCALL%2C+cooperative+learning%2C+computer+literacy%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E1+Introduction%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELearner++autonomy+has+been+widely+discussed+in+L2+research+%28Dam+%26amp%3B+Little%2C++1998%3B+Wenden%2C+1998%3B+Macaro%2C+1997%3B+Littlewood%2C+1996%3B+Little%2C+1995%3B++Little%2C+1990%3B+Dam%2C+1990%3B+Holec%2C+1981%29.+There+is+now+considerable++evidence+supporting+the+view+that+cooperative+learning%2C+including++project-oriented+learning%2C+can+lead+to+the+enhancement+of+learner++autonomy+%28Ehrman+%26amp%3B+Dornyei%2C+1998%3B+Dam+%26amp%3B+Little%2C+1998%3B+Johnson++%26amp%3B+Johnson%2C+1998%3B+Dornyei%2C+1997%3B+Macaro%2C+1997%3B+Crabbe%2C+1993%3B+Legutke++%26amp%3B+Thomas%2C+1991%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIncreasingly%2C++the+use+of+modern+technology%2C+such+as+email%2C+the+Internet%2C+HTML++editors%2C+is+coupled+with+cooperative+approaches+to+learning+%28Blin%2C+1999%3B++Ehrman+%26amp%3B+Dornyei%2C1998%3B+Warschauer%2C+1996%2C+1997%3B+Barson+%26amp%3B+Debski%2C++1996%3B+Kelm%2C+1996%29%2C+and+the+positive+effects+of+technology+on+language++learning+in+general+has+been+demonstrated+%28Warschauer%2C+1996%2C+1997%3B++Sandholtz+et+al.%2C+1997%3B+Barson+%26amp%3B+Debski%2C+1996%3B+Tella%2C+1996%2C+Roblyer++et+al.%2C+1988%29.+However%2C+although+modern+technology+is+claimed+to++encourage+students+to+have+positive+interdependence%2C+individual++accountability%2C+and+abundant+interaction+%28Kelm%2C+1996%2C+p.+25%29%2C+a+careful++analysis+of+the+literature+illustrates+how+little+is+known+about+how++technology+affects+the+exercise+of+learner+autonomy.+Why+is+it+that%2C++under+similar+conditions%2C+technology+affects+autonomous+learning+in+ways++that+vary+widely+from+student+to+student%3F+It+is+envisaged+that+the++success+of+autonomous+learning+would+be+greatly+influenced+by+learners%27++computer+literacy+and+their+beliefs+in+technology-incorporated+learning.++This+article+describes+how+these+technology-related+factors+have++affected+individual+learner%27s+autonomous+learning+in+a++technology-incorporated+cooperative+language+learning+environment.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E2+Definition+of+autonomy%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EOriginally%2C++the+concept+of+learner+autonomy+was+a+reaction+against+behaviourism%2C++and+usually+associated+with+the+notion+of+learner-centredness+and+a++vision+of+language+as+a+tool+for+communication+%28Gremmo+%26amp%3B+Riley%2C++1995%29.+It+is+now+generally+defined+as+an+ability+to+take+charge+of+one%27s++own+learning+%28Wenden%2C+1998%3B+Macaro%2C+1997%3B+Littlewood%2C+1996%3B+Little%2C++1995%3B+Dickinson%2C+1995%3B+Victori+%26amp%3B+Lockart%2C+1995%3B+Dam%2C+1990%3B+Holec%2C++1981%29.+While+it+has+been+claimed+that+independence+and+individual++responsibility+are+the+core+notions+of+learner+autonomy%2C+some++researchers+hold+the+view+that+autonomy+also+involves+interdependence++%28Blin%2C+1999%3B+Little%2C+1990%3B+Boud%2C+1981%29.+Responsible+learners+know+that%2C++as+long+as+learning+takes+place+in+social+interactions%2C+learning+in++isolation+is+impossible%2C+and+effective+learning+without+mentors+and+peer++support+is+difficult.+Taking+charge+of+one%27s+own+learning+therefore++inevitably+involves+being+positively+interdependent%2C+particularly+in+a++cooperative+learning+environment.+From+this+perspective%2C+in+this++article%2C+learner+autonomy+is+defined+as+%E2%80%98an+ability+and+willingness+to++learn+both+independently+and+in+cooperation+with+others+as+a+responsible++learner%E2%80%99+.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E3+Background+and+research+questions%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EProject-Oriented++Computer+Assisted+Language+Learning+%28PrOCALL%29+has+been+employed+in+many++places+around+the+world+%28eg.+Blin%2C+1999%3B+Debski+%26amp%3B+Gruba%2C+1999%3B++Warschauer%2C+1997%2C+1996%3B+Barson+%26amp%3B+Debski%2C1996%3B+Barson+et+al.%2C+1993%29.++However%2C+reports+focusing+on+learner+autonomy+in+this+style+of+language++learning+are+still+few.+The+existing+literature%2C+limited+as+it+is%2C++presents+mixed+findings.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EBarson++et+al.+%281993%29+report+on+a+CALL+project+undertaken+by+students+of+French++at+Harvard+University+and+Stanford+University%2C+who+collaboratively++produced+French+language+newspapers+and+videotapes.+They+described+how%2C++at+the+end+of+the+course%2C+students+expressed+deep+satisfaction+at+being++able+to+manage+their+language+learning+in+the+target+language+adopting+a++variety+of+roles%2C+from+manager+to+assistant.+Debski+%26amp%3B+Gruba+%281999%29++conducted+a+university-wide+survey+of+attitudes+towards+CALL+at+the++University+of+Melbourne%2C+which+involved+several+foreign+language++programs.+They+noted+that+the+interviewed+instructors+expressed++reservations+regarding+the+implementation+of+learning+based+on+learner++autonomy%3A+%22Instructors+did+not+think+that+students+would+want+to+be++truly+in+charge+of+their+own+language+studies%22+%28p.+231%29.+Blin+%281999%29++discusses+the+effect+of+learner-learner+interactions+in+a+CMC++environment+on+learner+autonomy%2C+that+was+part+of+a+CALL+project+at++Dublin+City+University%2C+as+students+who+were+about+to+leave+Ireland+for++France+used+a+discussion+list+to+exchange+information+with+their+partner++students+who+had+the+experience+of+residing+and+studying+abroad.+She++described+how+the+correspondence+encouraged+students%2C+who+at+first+were++attentive+passive+contributors%2C+to+bring+their+comments+on+culture+and++language+to+their+language+class%2C+and+discuss+learning+objectives+and++strategies+that+would+help+them+to+benefit+from+their+residence.+None+of++them+however+describes+why+technology+affects+autonomous+learning+in++ways+that+vary+widely+from+student+to+student.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E3.1+Computer+literacy%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ESussex++%281998%29%2C+based+on+his+informal+observations+and+reports+from+colleagues++and+students%2C+suggests+that+unstructured+learning+may+be+successful+for++learners+with+previous+experience+in+learning+on+the+Web%2C+but+that+there++are+potential+and+real+difficulties+for+students+if+they+have+little++experience+with+navigating+the+Internet.+Conceivably%2C+this+is+because++students%27+experience+in+the+use+of+modern+technology+affects+how+they++react+to+technology.+Students+with+extensive+experience+with+technology++may+find+it+easy+to+manage+their+learning+whereas+technologically++less-experienced+students+may+be+bewildered+by+new+technological+tools.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E3.2+Beliefs+in+technology+incorporated+learning%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EA++number+of+recent+articles+have+stressed+the+central+role+played+in++determining+learning+behaviour+by+the+learners%27+beliefs+and++representations+about+language+and+language+learning+%28Gremmo+%26amp%3B++Riley%2C+1995%2C+p.+158%29.+It+is+very+likely+that+learners%27+beliefs+in++technology+incorporated+learning+affect+their+attitude+and+learning++behaviours+in+PrOCALL.+Their+beliefs+have+been+formed+from+their++positive+or+negative+experience+with+technology+in+the+past.+As++Cotterall+%281995%29+has+stated%2C+the+beliefs+that+learners+hold+may+either++contribute+to+or+impede+the+development+of+their+potential+for+autonomy++%28p.196%29.+Students+who+have+positive+beliefs+in+technology+may%2C+as+they++have+trust+in+technological+tools%2C+be+able+to+make+full+use+of+the+tools++to+support+their+autonomous+learning.+On+the+other+hand%2C+students+with++negative+beliefs+in+technology-incorporated+learning+may+not+be+willing++to+use+the+tools+for+their+learning+from+a+fear+of+failure.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe+following+sections+will+look+into+these+hypotheses.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E4+the+project%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EA++large-scale+implementation+of+PrOCALL+project+was+conducted+at+the++University+of+Melbourne+in+two+second+semesters+%2812+weeks+each%29+over+the++years+1998+-+1999+under+the+supervision+of+the+project+leader+%28see++Debski%2C+2000%29.+The+PrOCALL+involved+11+languages+%281+Chinese%2C+2+German%2C+2++Indonesian%2C+3+Japanese%2C+1+Russian+and+2+ESL+classes%29+and+over+250++students+with+diversity+of+language+levels+and+10+teachers+from++different+cultural+backgrounds.+The+aim+of+the+PrOCALL+project+was+to++transform+existing+language+classes+into+classes+incorporating++project-oriented+CALL+while+each+class+was+aiming+to+improving+students%27++skills+using+multimedia+as+tools.+In+class%2C+students+in+groups+were++assigned+to+create+their+own+web+pages+which+involved+on-line+research%2C++computer-mediated+communication+and+web-publishing.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEach++language+department+offered+a+slightly+different+class+as+it+reflected++the+attitude%2C+motivation%2C+and+skill+of+each+participating+teacher++%28Debski%2C+2000%29.+Despite+this+difference+among+the+classes%2C+all+classes++generally+followed+a+similar+path+as+illustrated+below.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++the+first+session+of+a+course%2C+participant+students+were+introduced+to++the+background+of+the+Project.+A+timetable+and+assessments+were++negotiated+with+them.+The+students+then+formed+groups+and+each+group++decided+on+a+topic.+From+the+second+session%2C+the+students+searched+for++various+Web+sites+that+were+related+to+their+topic%2C+and+investigated++other+sources+outside+of+the+class.+In+some+classes%2C+students+had+e-mail++correspondence+with+their+partners+overseas%2C+and+wrote+messages+on+an++electronic+bulletin+board%2C+which+was+used+to+exchange+useful+information++among+the+students+in+the+classroom+and+with+overseas+partners.+Target++language+use+was+emphasised+for+all+communication.+After+gathering++information+for+5-6+weeks%2C+the+students+created+their+own+pages+by++writing+texts+and+inserting+images+and+sound.+There+was+a+peer+review++session+towards+the+end+of+the+course%2C+where+the+students+gave+comments++on+other+groups%27+pages+and+received+feedback+on+their+own+pages+from+the++classmates+and+teacher.+The+students+then+revised+their+pages+as++necessary+using+the+suggestions+from+the+review+sessions%2C+and+submitted++finalised+pages+to+the+teacher+at+the+end+of+the+semester.+These+pages++were+uploaded+to+a+Web+server%2C+and+made+available+to+a+worldwide++audience+%28The+pages+can+be+viewed+at%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-converted-space%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%26nbsp%3B%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.glen.hlc.unimelb.edu.au%2Fglen%2Fhll%2F%22+style%3D%22text-decoration%3A+none%3B%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.glen.hlc.unimelb.edu.au%2Fglen%2Fhll%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EDuring++the+course+of+this+project%2C+IT+officers+took+active+roles%3B+coming+to++classrooms+for+IT+demonstrations+and+other+IT+support.+The+teachers+were++facilitators+rather+than+instructors.+They+had+prepared+the+basic++structure+of+the+course%2C+but+the+rest+was+left+flexible+to+leave+rooms++for+the+students+to+exercise+learner+autonomy.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E5+Data+collection+and+analysis%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EData++collected+included+transcripts+of+semi-structured+student+interviews++conducted+on+55+students+%285+students+from+each+language+classroom%29%2C++weekly+logs+kept+by+5+participant+teachers%2C+and+observational+notes+made++by+the+IT+officers+and+the+project+evaluator.+A+questionnaire+on++students%27+computer+literacy+was+also+used+for+the+analysis.+These+data++were+coded+by+the+project+evaluator+using+the+qualitative+data+analysis++application%2C+QSR+NUD*IST+%28see+Lynch%2C+2000+for+details%29.+For+this++analysis%2C+I+have+used+data+annotated+as+%22student+autonomy%22+and+other++related+indexes+such+as+%22computer+literacy%22%2C+%22motivation+and+attitude%22%2C++%22collaborative+learning%22+and+%22language+learning%22.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++analysis+for+this+study+followed+two+steps.+Firstly%2C+after+reviewing++all+the+autonomy-related+data%2C+I+have+categorised+the+student+comments++into+positive%2C+negative+and+neutral+in+terms+of+showing+evidence+of++learner+autonomy+in+PrOCALL.+While+the+majority+of+them+fell+into+the++neutral+category%2C+some+were+very+positive+or+negative.+For+the+second++step%2C+I+cross-analysed+these+positive+or+negative+comments+and+the++results+of+the+computer+literacy+questionnaire+in+order+to+extract+four++different+groups+of+students%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHigh+computer+literacy+students+who+made+positive+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EHigh+computer+literacy+students+who+made+negative+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELow+computer+literacy+students+who+made+positive+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+margin-bottom%3A+0.5em%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ELow+computer+literacy+students+who+made+negative+comments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAll+the+participants%27+names+have+been+changed+to+pseudonyms+in+order+to+maintain+the+privacy+of+the+participants.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E6+Results+and+discussion%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EWhy++is+it+that%2C+under+similar+conditions%2C+technology+affects+autonomous++learning+in+ways+that+vary+widely+from+student+to+student%3F+For++technology+to+function+properly+was+a+sine+qua+non.+The+two+years%27++participation+in+the+PrOCALL+Project+gave+me+the+impression+that++reliability+and+accessibility+of+technology+were+a+prerequisite+for++autonomous+learning.+I+observed+the+students+were+more+independent+when++computers+were+acting+as+efficient+aids+for+learning.+However%2C+even+when++technology+did+function+well%2C+learner+autonomy+was+dependent+on+several++factors.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch4%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E6.1+Successful+students+with+high+computer+literacy+%287+students%29%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++students%27+reaction+to+the+hitches+varied+from+student+to+student%3A+some++enjoyed+the+challenges+of+technology+while+others+showed+hostility++toward+it.+Kate%2C+the+IT+officer%2C+observed+a+clear+difference+among+the++students%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EUpon++encountering+a+technical+problem%2C+the+students+who+were+confident+in++their+computer+skills+enjoyed+the+challenge+of+something+not+immediately++working%2C+and+learnt+how+to+make+use+of+it+more+efficiently+for+their++learning.+In+contrast%2C+technologically+less-advanced+students+or+less++confident+students+became+frustrated%2C+and+drew+back+from+taking+further++steps+%28Kate%2C+IT+officer%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EEven++when+technology+was+functioning+properly%2C+the+reaction+from+these+two++groups+was+very+different.+When+the+students+were+at+the+beginning+stage++of+searching+for+topic+related+Web+sites%2C+the+techno-savvy+students++were+already+more+autonomous.+In+the+process+of+searching%2C+some+students++found+some+sites+that+they+could+use+in+the+future.+Patrick+from+the++Chinese+class+made+a+couple+of+email+pals+through+the+email+pal+service++that+he+found+on+the+Internet.+Pierre%2C+on+the+other+hand%2C+explored+a++number+of+programs+that+allowed+him+to+use+Japanese+and+thus+expanded++his+Japanese.+He+says%3A%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph2%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em+2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAt++the+beginning+of+this+semester%2C+I+didn%27t+really+have+much+on+my++computer+which+could+use+the+Japanese+language%2C+%28but%29+I+found+heaps+and++heaps+of+resources+of+programs+that+I+could+browse+the+web+in+that++particular+language+and+word+process+in+the+language+%28Pierre%2C+Japanese++class+student%29.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EPierre++also+said+that+he+independently+made+choices+in+the+selection+of++reading+materials+commenting+that+%E2%80%98it+taught+me+to+sift+through+all+the++information+and+get+what+was+important%E2%80%99+.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%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22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThere++may+be+a+technology+threshold+level+that+students+need+to+pass+in+order++to+achieve+learner+autonomy.+The+threshold+level%2C+however%2C+may+not+be++measured+quantitatively.+It+is+rather+an+emotional+barrier+that+students++create+in+their+mind.+In+interviews%2C+participant+students+were+asked++about+their+technological+skills.+Interestingly%2C+students+with+a+similar++level+of+technology+judge+their+skills+quite+differently.+From+the++comments+of+the+students+it+could+be+presumed+that+this+diversity+may+be++attributed+to+their+confidence+in+using+their+skills.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAll++the+students+came+to+PrOCALL+with+a+disposition+towards+technology++formed+by+their+previous+experiences.+The+students+who+previously+had++positive+experiences+with+technology+were+usually+keen+and+confident+in++their+attitude+towards+mixing+technology+and+collaborative+learning.++These+students%2C+in+most+cases%2C+exercised+their+learner+autonomy.+On+the++other+hand%2C+students+who+had+little+experience+or+negative+encounters++with+technology+reacted+very+differently.+In+some+cases%2C+their+negative++beliefs+impeded+the+development+of+their+potential+for+autonomy.++Nevertheless%2C+the+findings+from+the+data+analyses+suggest+thaN+students%27++perception+can+be+altered+through+positive+or+negative+experience++during+a+PrOCALL+course.+In+other+words%2C+students%27+attitude+toward++learner+autonomy+can+be+enhanced+or+impeded+by+changes+in+their+beliefs.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3E7+Conclusion%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EIn++this+article%2C+I+have+indicated+evidence+of+critical+incidents+that++facilitated+or+inhibited+learner+autonomy+in+terms+of+technological++supports+for+language+learning.+I+have+also+pointed+out+salient+learner++differences+in+reactions+to+the+incorporation+of+technology.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3ETo++summarise%2C+the+findings+suggest%2C+generally+speaking%2C+that+technology++can+have+a+positive+impact+on+learner+autonomy+when+learners+have++extensive+experience+with+technology.+However%2C+they+also+suggest+that+it++can+have+a+positive+impact+on+autonomy+only+when+learners+perceive++technology+as+a+useful+tool.+The+findings+indicate+that+learners%27++perceptions+vary+largely+according+to+the+level+of+their+computer++literacy+although+the+students%27+beliefs+may+be+modified+through+positive++or+negative+relationships+with+other+students.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EThe++implications+of+the+study+may+be+that+there+are+at+least+three++conditions+necessary+for+successful+autonomous+learning+in+PrOCALL.++Firstly%2C+it+must+be+guaranteed+that+the+technology+in+use+is+accessible++and+reliable.+The+accessibility+and+reliability+of+technology+are+a++necessary+prerequisite+for+learner+autonomy.+The+second+condition+is++sufficient+computer+literacy+in+students.+Although+it+is+hard+to+state++how+much+computer+knowledge+and+skills+are+needed%2C+it+appears+that++students+are+required+to+have+some+fundamental+computer+literacy+in++order+to+make+use+of+a+technology-rich+environment.+Lastly%2C+and+most++importantly%2C+good+communication+with+and+support+from+peers+should+be++emphasised.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22+style%3D%22margin%3A+0em+0em+3em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Ch3+style%3D%22border-style%3A+solid%3B+border-width%3A+0em+0em+0.05em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0em+0.1em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EAcknowledgments%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+style%3D%22line-height%3A+1.3em%3B+padding%3A+0em+0.2em%3B%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22color%3A+red%3B%22%3EI++would+like+to+express+my+deepest+gratitude+to+Dr.+Robert+Debski+who++guided+me+and+gave+me+constructive+feedback+throughout+the+course+of+the++project+and+in+writing+the+paper.+I+also+wish+to+express+my+sincere++thanks+to+Associate+Professor+Tim+McNamara+for+his+invaluable+advice+and++encouragement.+Thanks+are+also+due+to+friends+and+colleagues+who+helped++and+supported+me%2C+especially+Richard+Harrison%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e+expert+in+the+meaning-making+process.+The++context+situates+and++foregrounds+the+learning+process.+Hence%2C++sociocultural+perspective+aids++in+studying+the+social+setting+in+which++knowledge+is+embedded.+The++concept+of+supportive+environment+in++fostering+learning+collectively+can++be+examined+by+applying++sociocultural+perspective.++++%0D%0ABy+situating+the+thought+of+studying+the+internal+and+external+process%2C+++constructivist+and+sociocultural+perspectives+provide+a+framework+for+++understanding+on+how+learning+takes+place+in+a+CSCL+context.+++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AMethodology%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AData+gathering+and++analysis+were+guided+by+qualitative+theory++techniques.+Qualitative++techniques+were+designed+to+explore+how+a+topic++was+being+discussed++where+it+requires+researcher+to+listen+to+the++participants+and++construct+a+picture+based+on+their+ideas+%28Creswell%2C++1994%29.+In+line+with++this%2C+the+researchers+analysed+the+aspect+of++collaborarative+learning++in+weblogs+posted+by+a+group+of+postgraduates++by+employing+the++constructuvist+and+sociocultural+perspectives.+Patton++%282001%29+interprets++qualitative+research+as+an+attempt+where+a+researcher++wants+to+seek+a++real+world+setting+to+understand+the+actual+process+that++takes+place+in++a+situation.+This+explanation+is+in+line+wih+the+purpose++of+the+study++which+is+to+identify+the+preferred+collaborative+skills++and+subskills++and+to+study+the+learning+processes+that+take+place+in+a++virtual++context.+The+first+research+question+is+basically+to+identify++the++preferred+collaborative+learning+skills+and+subskills+by+calculating+++the+frequency+of+the+number+of+attributes+representing+the+skills+and+++subskills+in+each+weblog+posting.+Attributes+are+the+sentence+openers+++for+each+skill+and+subskill.+The+second+research+question+seeks+to+++understand+the+process+that+takes+place+in+a+real+academic+setting.+++Statistics+and+figures+cannot+help+a+researcher+to+predict+a+situation%3B+++instead+it+takes+a+qualitative+approach+to+allow+researchers+to+++illuminate%2C+understanding+and+extrapolates+the+situation.+The+nature+of+++the+study+which+is+to+investigate+a+deep+understanding+of+group+actions+++and+interactions+that+involves+an+inevitable+interpretation+of++meanings++based+on+the+theoretical+perspectives+has+led+to+the+use+of++qualitative++approach+in+prompting+an+excellent+educational+research.++++++%0D%0AA+total+of+11+postgraduate+students+pursuing+Masters+degree+%28from+a+++literature+based+course%29+participated+in+this+the+research.+The+++participants+were+given+a+literary+text+%28%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EThe+White++Heron%3C%2Fspan%3E%2C++a+short+story%29+to+analyse+via+a+weblog.+All+the+students++in+the+course++who+participated+in+the+weblog+are+taken+as+the+sample+for++the++research.+All+respondents+possess+a+basic+degree.+++++%0D%0AThe+procedure+to+conduct+the+research+was+basically+divided+into+five+++stages.+The+first+stage+was+to+collect+the+data+from+the+weblog.+Stage+2+++was+the+data+reduction+stage%3B+a+stage+to+simplify+the+rich+information+++and+also+to+focus+on+a+specific+context.+It+covers+50+percent+of+the+++overall+postings+in+the+weblog.+Stage+3+refers+to+the+coding+phase.+The+++participants%27+pseudonyms+were+coded+in+alpha-numeric+form+such+as+P1+++%28ASH%29.+%E2%80%9CP1%E2%80%9D+refers+to+the+position+of+the+posting+in+weblog%2C+whereas+++%E2%80%9C%28ASH%29%E2%80%9D+refers+to+the+abbreviation+of+the+participants%27+pseudonym.+The+++next+stage+%28Stage+4%29+is+the+process+of+compressing+the+data+collected.+++The+data+collected+in+these+earlier+stages+was+extended+into+tables+to+++discern+systematic+patterns.+The+assembly+of+frequency+counts+of+the+++skills+and+subskills+in+the+data+in+a+systematic+way+helped+to+interpret+++the+initial+process+of+data+reduction.+The+tables+with+relevant++textual++evidence+from+the+data+provided+an+important+idea+to+obtain+an++overall++view+of+the+preferred+collaborative+learning+skills+to+probe++meaningful++insights+in+relation+to+the+CSCL+environment.+The+final++stage+%28Stage+5%29++was+to+make+logical+assumptions+by+correlating+the++content+%28data%29+with++the+tables.+Logical+assumption+in+this+stage++includes+the+identification++of+established+theories+related+to+the++data.+Firstly%2C+as+to+study+the++preferred+learning+skills%2C+frequency++counts+were+used+to+identify+the++%E2%80%9Cweight%E2%80%9D+of+the+components+in+the++collaborative+skills.+The++identification+of+the+preferred+skill+is++obtained+from+the+participants%27++based+on+the+attributes+found+in+the++participants%27+replies.+The+data++gathered+was+tabulated+and+converted+to++percentage+count.+A+higher+score++and+percentage+counts+indicates+a++high+level+of+preference.+Then%2C+the++correlation+between+the+content+of++the+interaction+%28data%29+and+the++theoretical+perspectives+was+used+to++understand+to+what+extent+learners++participate+in+online+interact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++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3EMaintenance%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E12%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E16%3C%2Ftd%3E+++++%3C%2Ftr%3E%0D%0A%3Ctr+class%3D%22bold%22%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3ETotal%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E75%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E100%3C%2Ftd%3E+++++%3C%2Ftr%3E%0D%0A%3Ctr%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22topline+text%22%3ECreative+Conflict%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22topline+text%22%3EArgue%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22topline+num%22%3E64%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22topline+num%22%3E100%3C%2Ftd%3E+++++%3C%2Ftr%3E%0D%0A%3Ctr%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3EMediate%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E0%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E0%3C%2Ftd%3E+++++%3C%2Ftr%3E%0D%0A%3Ctr+class%3D%22bold%22%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+text%22%3ETotal%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E64%3C%2Ftd%3E++++++%3Ctd+class%3D%22noline+num%22%3E100%3C%2Ftd%3E+++++%3C%2Ftr%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ftbody%3E%3C%2Ftable%3E%0D%0A%0D%0AThe+total+number+of+attributes+generated+by+Active+Learning+is+207.+The+++Inform+subskill+represents+196+attributes+%2894.69%25%29%2C+followed+by++Request%2C++9+%284.35%25%29+and+then+Motivate+only+constitutes+2+%280.96%25%29++attributes.++Creative+Conflict+represents+Mediate+and+Argue+subskills.++64+attributes++comprising+a+total+100%25+represent+the+Argue+subskill+and++no+attributes++were+identified+for+the+Mediate+subskill.+Conversation++skill+constitutes++Acknowledgement%2C+Maintenance+and+Task+subskills.+The++highest+attribute++for+Conversation+skill+is+Acknowledgement++representing+52%25+%2839++attributes%29.+The+percentage+for+Task+and++Maintenance+subskills+is+32%25++%2824+attributes%29+and+16%25+%2812+attributes%29.++++++%0D%0AThe+participants+generally+had+high+preference+in+providing+information+++as+they+actively+exchange+ideas.+However%2C+the+participants+made+fewer+++requests+to+their+peers+as+the+form+of+request+made+in+the+interaction+++is+unlike+the+typical+way+of+students+requesting+for+information.+The+++participants+were+generally+aware+of+the+subject+matter%2C+but+often+++requested+for+further+explanation+to+enrich+their+discussion.+Finally%2C+++for+the+Motivate+subskill+only+two+students+used+this+attribute.+++Reinforcing+reply+was+given+for+presenting+an+attractive+point.+However%2C+++encouragement+given+was+also+entailed+by+disagreement.+In+this++context%2C++the+motivation+given+can+be+perceived+as+a+positively+foresaid++argument++to+avoid+dispute.+Out+of+346+attributes%2C+only+39+attributes++were++identified+as+Acknowledge+subskill+from+the+Conversation+skill.++The++participants+generally+accepted+and+showcased+appreciation+to+++contribution+made+by+others.+24+attributes+represented+Task+subskill+++which+explains+the+participants%27+attempt+to+coordinate+the+group.+The+++participants+summarized+information+to+request+for+change+of+focus.+++Summaries+provided+by+the+participants+were+a+combination+of+the+++individual%27s+perception+and+information+gathered+from+others.+Summaries+++were+also+dominantly+used+to+strengthen+a+particular+point+of+view+++before+progressing+to+a+new+topic+of+discussion.+Finally%2C+the+++Maintenance+subskill+which+functions+to+request+confirmation+in+order+to+++validate+information+constitutes+only+12+attributes.+It+explains+that+++the+participants+were+generally+aware+and+confident+in+terms+of+the+++opinions+shared+with+others.+The+participants+were+more+inclined+towards+++making+interpretations%2C+evaluations+and+presenting+evidence+to+++strengthen+the+claims+made+instead+of+maintaining+the+task+by+explicitly+++complementing+others+or+navigating+the+group+to+progress+to+new++subject++matters.+Finally%2C+the+Creative+Conflict+skill+that+encompasses++Mediate++and+ANgue+subskills+delineates+no+attributes+for+Mediate++subskill+and+64++attributes+for+Argue+subskill.+The+participants++actively+constructed++argumentative+statements+upon+opposing+viewpoints.++Although+the++attributes+for+Creative+Conflict+appear+to+be+the+lowest%2C++it+can+be++perceived+as+the+most+important+skill+and+subskill+as+the++controversies++were+followed+by+extensive+explanation%2C+elaboration+and++justification.++++These+were+normally+summarized+with+inferences+which++were+an+implicit++way+of+making+interpretation+and+also+ending+a++conversation.+This++eventually+built+an+active+interaction+as+the++participants+worked++together+to+submit+their+postings.+++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EAnalysis+of+the+dialogues+identified+in+the++skills+and+subskills+used%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AThe++collaborating+team+had+a+common+interest+in+the+participation.+Under+++this+condition%2C+the+researchers+identified+coherence+in+interaction.+++Coherent+interaction+is+an+important+aspect+to+ensure+the+participants+++have+sufficiently+understood+the+claims+and+feel+satisfied+by+providing+++relevant+information+in+relation+to+the+subject+matter+discussed+in+++earlier+postings.+Adding+information+to+a+claim+made+by+other+++participants+require+sufficient+evidence+related+to+the+previous+++postings.+This+process+involves+request+for+clarification%2C+++interpretation+and+necessary+evidence+to+initiate+a+next+turn+or+to+++display+continued+attention+to+generate+active+learning.+Therefore%2C+++coherent+interaction+can+clearly+explain+the+skills+and+subskills+based+++on+the+attributes+employed+by+the+participants.+Figure+1+reflects+that+++participants+were+inclined+towards+Active+Learning.+++++%0D%0A%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22img%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Cimg+alt%3D%22FIGURE+1%3A+An+Example+of+Interaction+Pattern+among+Six+Participants+%0D%0Aat+the+beginning+phase+of+the+Interaction%22+height%3D%22390%22+src%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fcallej.org%2Fjournal%2F11-2%2FKanniah-KrishImg%2Fimage002.gif%22+width%3D%22594%22+%2F%3E++++%3Cspan+class%3D%22caption%22%3EFIGURE+1%3A+An+Example+of+Interaction+Pattern++among+Six+Participants+at+the+beginning+phase+of+the+Interaction%3C%2Fspan%3E++++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%0D%0AP3+%28PVC%29+made+a+claim+that+the+element+of+nature+is+the+greater+idea+++while+personal+ideas+are+the+monetary+rewards.+This+claim+is+disagreed+++by+P4+%28MMR%29.+Then%2C+P15+%28PVC%29+argued+that+the+claim+proposed+in+P3+%28PVC%29+++is+valid+and+further+justified+rather+than+giving+up+by+creating+++inconsistency+in+the+delivery+of+opinion.+Then%2C+P11+%28MMR%29+agreed+to+P5+++%28HVC%29+that+the+protagonist+is+not+materialistic+but+disagreed+to+the+++perception+that+nature+is+the+greater+idea.+Lastly+in+the+coherent+++chain%2C+P13+%28DWN%29+agrees+to+P5+%28HVC%29.+Generally%2C+the+participants+were+++able+to+learn+independently+by+assisting+each+other+mainly+by+providing+++extensive+information.+The+participants+actively+explained+their+ideas+++and+also+the+claims+made+by+their+peers.+Most+of+the+participants+++constructed+independent+claims+or+arise+a+new+understanding+which+were+++supported+by+self-explanation+to+support+their+claim+and+convince+other+++participants.+The+explanation+given+was+by+providing+textual+evidence++as++it+strengthened+clarity+in+the+author%27s+claim.+To+ensure+continuity++in++interaction%2C+self-explanation+is+further+supported+by+feedback+from+++other+group+members.+The+active+participation+among+group+members+to+++provide+information+created+interaction+patterns+that+formulates+++enriched+learning+environment.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EThe+social+and+cognitive+constructions+in+a++CSCL+mode%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0ATo++ensure+the+interaction+goes+on+with+appropriate+collaborative+skills%2C+++the+participants+posed+questions+to+their+peers.+The+questions+++addressed+to+their+peers+were+seen+as+a+social+factor+to+elicit+extended+++thinking.+The+participants+asked+questions+to+gain+alternative+view.++It++explained+the+participants%27+role+to+construct+knowledge+beyond+the+++ability+of+each+peer+to+supply+knowledge.+It+was+seen+as+a+valuable+++strategy+to+pursue+the+task.+Besides+that%2C+the+participants+also+asked+++questions+to+request+for+further+explanation+to+extend+the+topic+++further.+Lastly%2C+questions+were+asked+to+invite+others+to+contribute+in+++the+interaction.+This+indicates+that+the+authors+increased+the+++opportunity+for+other+members+to+contribute.+The+participants+also+ended+++the+topic+discussed+explicitly+and+implicitly+based+on+understanding+++gained+from+the+context+of+learning.+In+terms+of+dealing+with+conflict%2C+++the+interaction+is+not+a+smooth+sailing+journey+as+some+of+the+++contributions+made+did+not+solely+fit+in+the+group%27s+common+thinking.+++This+led+to+conflict+and+it+attracted+other+peers%27+concern+and+this+++created+a+socially+mediated+conversation.+Ability+to+put+forward+++competitive+attributes+is+due+to+the+contributions+made+by+others.+This+++explains+how+members+in+a+collaborative+learning+environment+++co-construct+meaning+together.+The+participants+also+demonstrated+++supportive+behaviour+to+reach+a+deeper+discussion+and+handle+complex+++issues+in+delivering+opinions.+The+participants+showed+interest+and+++concern+to+invite+others+to+participate.+++++%0D%0AIn+terms+of+the+internal+process%2C+the+participants+discussed+issues+++beyond+literal+meaning+by+providing+contradicting+statements.+This+++attempt+clearly+required+higher+level+of+thinking+on+the+individual%27s+++part.+At+this+stage%2C+individuals+needed+to+think+critically+to+seek+for+++information.+The+participants+also+practised+self-question-asking+where+++questions+formulated+were+answered+by+the+one+who+initiated+the+doubt.+++Therefore%2C+the+answer+for+the+question+constructed+can+be+treated+as++the++individual%27s+attempt+to+seek+for+solution+without+solely+depending++on++their+peers%27+assistance.+It+does+not+only+improve+the+participants%27+++ability+to+solve+problems+but+also+exemplifies+that+learning+is+++individually+centered.+++++%0D%0ATo+this+point+we+have+seen+how+internal+and+external+processes+++interchangeably+predispose+discussion+in+a+virtual+context.+It+has+now+++broadened+the+lens+of+understanding+on+how+learning+takes+place+in+a+++virtual+context.+It+encapsulates+that+learning+in+a+virtual+context+via+++weblog+forum+is+a+collective+process+which+is+interrelated+especially++in++formulating+understanding+among+the+participants.+Figure+2+shows+how+++the+internal+and+external+processes+mediate+together+in+a+learning+++environment.+++++%0D%0A%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22img%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fcallej.org%2Fjournal%2F11-2%2Fimage003_bigger.html%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cimg+alt%3D%22FIGURE+2%3A+Interaction+Patterns+showing+how+learning+takes+place+in+a%0D%0A+CSCL+Environment%22+height%3D%22500%22+src%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fcallej.org%2Fjournal%2F11-2%2FKanniah-KrishImg%2Fimage003.gif%22+width%3D%22748%22+%2F%3E%3C%2Fa%3E++++%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fcallej.org%2Fjournal%2F11-2%2Fimage003_bigger.html%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3E%3Cspan+class%3D%22caption%22%3EFIGURE+2%3A+Interaction+Patterns++showing+how+learning+takes+place+in+a+CSCL+Environment%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fa%3E++++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%0D%0AThe+coded+circles+in+the+wide+circle+represent+each+individual+in+the+++subgroup.+The+arrows+represent+the+connection+between+the+participants+++in+the+subgroups.+The+structure+%28see+Figure+1%29+in+the+subgroup+explains+++the+transformation+of+information+from+one+group+to+another+between+the+++members+of+the+network.+The+space+in+the+wide+circle+reflects+the++social++context+in+the+interaction.+The+individual+mind+denotes+how+an+++individual+behaviour+influences+learning.+As+mentioned+earlier%2C+the+++participants+actively+debated+issues+contradicting+with+their+individual+++thought.+Therefore%2C+it+can+be+inferred+that+disagreements+stimulate+++individual+learners+to+actively+indulge+in+the+Explain+skill.+++Presentation+of+contradicting+issues+cause+disjoint+among+the+learners.+++The+mismatch+among+the+group+members+can+be+seen+as+the+fundamental+++characteristic+for+the+individual+learners+in+the+group+to+provide+++proper+evidences+and+explanations.+The+individual+perception+will+++influence+others+because+the+contradicting+statement+sets+a+demand+for+++others+to+accept+or+reject+the+opinion.+This+is+the+point+where+learning+++becomes+a+social+affair+because+the+individual+thought+is+extended++with++other+members%27+involvement+in+the+group.+Although+sociocultural+++perspectives+are+embraced+and+acknowledged%2C+it+is+still+important+to+++submit+to+the+development+of+individual+learner%27s+involvement+to+produce+++insightful+views.+Figure+2+also+garners+that+surrounding+is+an+++important+venue+for+learners+to+participate+in+learning+as+the+community+++around+%E2%80%98forces%E2%80%99+individuals+to+participate+in+the+discussion+by+++inviting+them+join+or+asking+for+clarifications.+Through+such+++relationship+and+behaviour%2C+participants+collaborate+towards+a+shared+++goal.+As+the+participants+make+references+and+acknowledge+each+other%2C+++knowledge+is+transmitted+throughout+the+interaction.+This+constant+++interaction+has+led+the+group+of+learners+to+formulate+a+few+subgroups+++that+are+bound+together.+One+of+the+reasons+that+the+learners+are+able+++to+operate+in+a+dual+mode+is+due+to+the+nature+of+the+asynchronous+mode+++of+learning+where+learners+could+participate+and+respond+at+their+++convenience.+The+advent+of+asynchronous+mode+of+learning+has+opened+up+++possibilities+for+learners+to+reflect%2C+revisit+and+construct+comments+++independently.+A+wide+range+of+cognitive+and+social+attributes+in+the+++interaction+could+be+due+to+the+aspect+of+anonymity.+The+anonymous+++context+and+the+use+of+pseudonyms+could+have+influenced+the+participants+++to+create+numerous+responses+that+create+%E2%80%9Cnoisy%E2%80%9D+but+productive+++learning+opportunities.++++%0D%0ATherefore%2C+it+is+plausible+to+summarize+that+the+participants+are+both+++cognitively+and+socially+inclined.+Hence%2C+learning+involves+the+presence+++of+both+social+and+cognitive+factors.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AConclusion%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AIndividual+thought+is+a++necessary+condition+in+the+creation+of++constructive+learning+%28Piaget%2C++1977%29.+Driven+by+this+need%2C+learners++perceive+learning+as+a++self-perception+process.+This+perspective++reflects+the+participants+in++the+present+study+as+the+individuals+put++forward+contradicting++statements+by+thinking+critically%2C+constructing++hypothetical+questions++or+evaluating+others+point+of+view+based+on+the++individuals%27++understanding.+Expre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3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EWertsch%2C+J.V.+%281991%29.+%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EVoices+of+the+mind%3C%2Fspan%3E.++Harvard+University+Press.%3C%2Fli%3E% D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv%3E%0D%0Asource%3A%26nbsp%3Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fcallej.org%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22copyright%22%3E%0D%0ACopyright+%28c%29+2010%2C+Kanniah-Krish+%26amp%3B+CALL-EJ++Online.+All+rights+reserved.++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0Afarindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-1212807716797337172011-12-03T18:38:00.001-08:002011-12-03T18:38:38.208-08:00Making the Most of Video Sharing Websites: An Indonesian Scenario<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Making the Most of Video Sharing Websites: An Indonesian Scenario </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online</li>
<li>Vol. 11, No. 2, February 2010</li>
</ul></div><div class="author"> <ul><li>Mokhamad Syaifudin</li>
<li><a href="mailto:msyaifudin@gmail.com">msyaifudin@gmail.com</a></li>
<li>IAIN Sunan Ampel, Indonesia</li>
</ul></div><div class="article"> <div class="chapter"> <h3>Abstract</h3>This paper explores the potential of video sharing websites as a source of authentic learning materials in the form of video clips. The context is Indonesian schools, a context in which very few teachers currently use video in the classroom. There are many reasons for this; among them, the scarcity of video materials, a lack of knowledge on how to use video for teaching, and even a lack of awareness that video can be used as a language learning tool. This paper seeks to address such issues by offering some suggestions on how to make use of video sharing websites, search for video clips, to save them, and, most importantly, how to use them in the classroom. The discussion is intended to be practical rather than theoretical, and hopefully it will provide a pathway for those who wish to use video in the classroom.<br />
Key words: Indonesia, web video, resources, learning activity <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>A. Introduction</h3>“Video materials provide abundant authentic samples and modeling of the target language that students can directly and easily imitate.” (Canning-Wilson, 2000). They also provide non-linguistic reference for learners to enhance comprehension of the target language being learned. By watching videos, learners can see and hear the language they are learning in actual use in daily conversation. In addition, videos, with their visual interest and the wide variety of topics they cover, seem to be attractive to learners. For these reasons, language teachers should seriously consider using videos as a language learning tool. <br />
In Indonesia, where English is a compulsory subject in schools, the use of videos in the language classroom is still rare. There seem to be several reasons for this. Most schools have no video material collections, and teachers lack knowledge of how to use videos in the teaching-learning process. Despite the fact that most schools now possess sufficient and suitable hardware, having been supplied with video and audio systems by the government, few teachers have even thought of using it for showing videos. <br />
In this paper we shall seek to address such issues. Specifically, we shall offer suggestions on how to use video sharing websites as a source of abundant audio and video language teaching materials. These sources are valuable since the materials they offer are free and they contain authentic samples of the target language. <br />
The discussion will not take the form of a specific tutorial. Rather, it will provide a pathway of how we can make use of the available video resources on the Internet, how to prepare them for classroom use, and how to use them in the classroom. <br />
We shall focus on video sharing websites and look at the most important points to consider when selecting them for teaching purposes. We shall go on to explain how to search for video clips and prepare them in the absence of an internet connection. To end with, we shall suggest some techniques for using videos in the classroom for teaching and learning activities. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>B. What are Video Sharing Websites?</h3>Video sharing websites (VSWs) are a relatively new but ever-growing phenomenon. Their attraction lies in the wide variety of movie genres they offer and the possibility of the personalization of content. The videos they present, many of them home-made, are contributed by people from all over the world, and so are likely to be culture-rich and authentic. <br />
Recently video sharing websites have become increasingly feature-rich. There are VSWs that offer features such as personal collections, links to weblogs, and security filters. While each VSW offers unique features that may attract different users, there seems to be one feature they all have in common; no downloadable links. <br />
Some famous VSWs, offering a vast range of topics, well-classified and easy to search, are Metacafe, YouTube, MSN, Video, Google Video, Daily Motion, and Blip TV. Among these the best known and most frequently visited is YouTube. Godwin-Jones (2007) calculates that every day, on YouTube alone, more than 65 thousand videos are uploaded and more than 100 million videos are viewed. Of course these videos are not only in English. Nevertheless, if teachers visit YouTube, there is very little possibility that they will fail to find videos suitable for use in the classroom. <br />
However, it is necessary to consider some guiding principles when selecting these videos, since there are undoubtedly some themes and scenes that may not be appropriate for language learning. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>C. What to consider when selecting video materials</h3>Selecting videos to be used in the classroom is relatively easy as long as we bear in mind certain criteria for using such materials in the classroom. The main points that should be considered when selecting video clips are: cultural appropriateness, the students’ needs, the class objectives, the length of the video clip, the availability of hardware, visual quality and compatibility. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Cultural appropriateness</h4>When we learn a language, indirectly we will also learn something about the culture of the native speakers of that language. This is partly because we need to be immersed in the way native speakers think when using the language, and partly because the lexis of the target language will clearly reflect the culture in which it has developed. <br />
This issue sometimes triggers controversy among educators in a society with a very different culture. As a result it can be a hindrance to the acceptance of what we want to pass on to the students. In the Indonesian context, the choice of clips that can be used may be based on cultural values that basically avoid the following things: graphic violence, sexual scenes, taboo words, racial issues, and blasphemy or criticism of religion. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Students’ needs</h4>Richards (2001) points out that a sound educational program should be based on the analysis of learners’ needs. Common sense tells us that the language students learn should be the language they need in the real world. Unfortunately, while students can often identify what they want to learn, few know precisely what they need. It is, therefore, one of the teachers’ jobs to guide students to be able to differentiate between their learning wants and their learning needs. <br />
In practical terms, considering students’ needs may affect such issues as who chooses the video and what topics might be interesting, It might be best, whenever possible, to give learners options from which to choose, thereby involving them in the selection of materials. This tends to give them a sense of control, and is likely to lead to motivation and perhaps greater learner autonomy. <br />
However, once again it should be emphasized that teachers themselves should be careful to identify, and differentiate between, learners’ needs and learners’ wants, and should take the responsibility of guiding their students. Unless they do this, teachers run the risk of becoming nothing more than entertainers and will potentially fail to function as a language educators. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Class Objectives</h4>We do not want our presentation to be too entertaining and thus not make the students not focus on what they actually have to achieve. Video clips can be abundant sources of authentic materials. Yet, unfortunately not so many people realize how video can be adapted and used for different levels of students. A single video clip can be used to teach different level of students and to teach different class objectives. <br />
What needs to be considered carefully is how we can simplify tasks to meet the needs and the abilities of our students of different levels. A single clip, for example, can be adapted to teach low-level up to advanced-level students merely by choosing suitable tasks for each level. At the end of this paper there will be samples that can be used to teach different levels of students to meet their needs. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Video Clip Length and Quality</h4>A full-length video clip can be entertaining to watch but it can also cause students to lose focus on the learning points. If this happens, it may not help them too much in acquiring useful language. Similarly, poor picture and sound quality may induce boredom in our students. For these reasons, we need to consider very carefully the length and the quality of the clip so that students remain focused on the task of learning rather than entertainment value of the video. <br />
What, then, is the most appropriate length? This may vary depending on the aims of the lesson that we want to teach, but generally experience has shown that a 5-7 minute clip tends to be most appropriate since it will not take too long for students’ to watch and for teachers to review. Moreover, if a video clip is fairly short, it will be easier for the teacher and learners to focus on specific language points. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Availability of Hardware</h4>By hardware we refer to the equipment that is used to play the video clips. They can include the player, the recording media, the sound system, even the room acoustics. As in the schools of much of the developing world, in most Indonesian schools such hardware is not easily available or accessible and teachers may need to exercise their creativity in order to obtain it. <br />
In many Indonesian schools the most convenient way to use video clips is by recording them onto CDs and playing them by using a television set. This is because a television set is bay far the most widely available hardware. However, there are few things to consider when we record video clips onto CDs. Those are the file format, the software to use to edit and record the video, and the quality of CDs as the medium for recording the video. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Language Lab</h4>Frequently a language lab is used to deliver this multimedia content. Despite its cost, still very expensive, more and more schools are becoming able to provide this sophisticated facility, perceiving the potential of using for language teaching computers which stimulate more than one mode of learning. At the same time it must be admitted that some schools provide this facility merely for showing off and for the purpose of advertising themselves to prospective students. <br />
Some advantages of using a language lab are as follows: it provides more individualized learning, it facilitates an immediate response to students’ learning, it can provide a more culture-rich experience because students can directly see the language in use in society, and it allows a focus on pronunciation (Harmer, 2001). Nowadays, the use of computers in the language lab may provide even more benefits since they enable greater interaction, provide immediate feedback and opportunities for convenient error correction, and of course facilitate self-correction since students can directly compare and analyze their own performance (Ariew & Frommer, 1987). <br />
The availability of language lab features should be considered carefully when choosing a video, so that all the benefits of a language lab can be realized. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Video streaming quality and compatibility</h4>These days more and more websites provide video streaming features. These features can have advantages and drawbacks for the language teacher. In some developing countries, including Indonesia, where the internet connection is still not reliable and available everywhere, playing streaming video mat often be troublesome. The trouble may take one of the following forms: <br />
<br />
<ul><li> The video has been found in the internet but it cannot be brought into the classroom because of the absence of Internet or the connection is so slow that it will take more time than expected to play. </li>
<li> Because of the type of file compression the video and sound are rather poor in quality. </li>
<li> Some video files require specific player/plug-in to play and very often installing this plug-in/software takes a long time because of the time to download the plug-in or because of the administrator privilege issues that are usually found in most computers owned by schools or public institutions.</li>
</ul><br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>D. Where to get videos</h3>Having considered all the above, it is time to think of how and where to obtain the videos. In most countries people can easily find video clips in these resources: DVD movies, news, documentaries or TV recordings, self-made videos, course books, and the Internet ( Video Sharing Websites) <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>DVD movies, TV recordings, self-made videos and course book videos</h4>DVD movies on the market are actually abundant sources of video clips for use in the classroom for language teaching. Video features that provide a menu will greatly help teachers to locate which clips they want to play in the classroom easily. In addition, teachers can also make use of the timer that very often comes with DVD players. DVD movies are also equipped with subtitles, which can be very helpful for learners. These subtitles will be especially helpful if students want feedback during the learning process. <br />
However, DVD movies are not cheap and sometimes difficult to index. Although certain software can help a teacher cut certain clips and indexes them. It is not easy sometimes to use such software and takes time which many teachers do not have. <br />
Other resources such as news, documentaries, and TV recordings are great learning resources but very often they are not easy to prepare and it takes time to record them and then save them. Self-made videos are often preferred because they can be tailor-made to the needs of the students. However, they are even more time-consuming to prepare. <br />
Videos that accompany course books are designed in such a way as to meet set aims and they come with a pre-designed syllabus and thus give clear guidance to the user. An example of such a video is the one that accompanies the well-known New Headway textbooks. However, many if not all such videos are made especially for language instruction and thus not completely authentic. In addition, such videos are usually expensive, often beyond the budget of schools in developing countries, and difficult to acquire. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Video sharing websites</h4>For the last option we turn to the Internet, Here, videos are often available for free on Video Sharing Websites such as YouTube, MetaCafe, Daily Motion and others. These VSWs provide abundant video resources that can be used for language teaching and learning purposes. Below are a few reasons why these VSWs are especially valuable sources of video materials. <br />
Most of the video clips available there are free. Thus we can easily keep them or even distribute them. Secondly, they are indexed in such a way that people can easily search and sort the videos based on name or category. In this way this facility helps people save time in accessing appropriate videos to use in the classroom. Third, most video clips are authentic and thus contain real examples of target language in the real world. Furthermore, the videos are contributed by people all around the world and thus the topics and the genre of the video can be rich and varied. <br />
However, VSWs are not without drawbacks. Principally, it is not always easy for people to save the videos in their private storage for ease of use later. In most developing-world schools, where there is no Internet connection, this can seem a real problem. <br />
The key question is: how to save these web videos? <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>E. How to Save Web Videos</h3>In order to save web videos there are at least three common techniques; <br />
<br />
<ul><li> using the available web-based video downloader</li>
<li> using dedicated video-downloader software such as MIRO, iTunes, Azureus, Video Downloader</li>
<li> using browser plug-ins which are also software designed by a third party but it is then integrated into the browser such as in Mozilla Firefox and Opera.</li>
</ul><br />
Of these, the easiest to use is the web-based video downloader. It is as simple as copying the video URL and pasting it into the provided column, which is usually available on web-based video downloader sites. And among the best web-based downloader probably keepvid.com is the most reliable one for internet users in Indonesia. <br />
Unlike the web video downloader (which needs no installation and can be used directly with just a browser available), dedicated downloader software usually requires installation (though some may not). If it does, then we have to make sure that we have the administrator privilege to install such software. These downloader usually come with features such as a download manager, a built-in video player, a powerful video search engine that will search multiple sites and thus give users more convenience to choose what to download, and an interesting and comprehensible interface. Unfortunately, most of them are not free. Some free software that can be recommended are MIRO, Azureus, and iTunes. <br />
Like the dedicated software, browser plug-ins also require installation and, of course, administrator privilege, unless the browsers are portable such as portable Firefox or portable Opera that should run directly from a USB flash drive without installation. <br />
Once the video clips have been downloaded, it is time to think of what media we should use to display the video to the learners. At this point, we should consider what file formats are playable in all kinds of media. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>F. Media to display videos</h3>How we present the videos to students will depend on the purpose, the audience, the storage media, and the file format of the video clips. The most common practice is for teachers to present a video to a group of students, and have the students do activities centered on the video being displayed. In order to do this, one of the following equipment options may be chosen. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>An LCD projector. </h4>These days LCD projectors are gradually becoming affordable for more and more schools. When using this equipment, teachers should know how to install it and be familiar with the room settings that will best accommodate its use. An LCD is actually very handy and effective for public display and can be connected either to a computer or to a DVD player directly. Some LCDs even support some multimedia card storage such SD, MMC, or memory stick cards. While it is certainly true that teachers need to learn how to use them appropriately, this does not take long.. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Computer and TV</h4>If an LCD projector is too expensive, another alternative is to connect a computer directly to a television set. Even in developing countries like Indonesia a television can be found in almost every house and school and so will not be difficult to provide. However, in order to connect a computer to TV, a computer must have an s-video port which unfortunately not every computer has. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>iPOD and other portable media players to TV</h4>More and more people prefer playing multimedia files using a portable media player such as an iPOD. This is due to the greater capacity, which may store hundreds of audio and video files. In addition, the ability to play a vast range of different file formats makes these relatively small gadgets the primary choice of people who love portability. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>Wired and Wireless LAN (local area network)</h4>Video can be broadcast over a local area network, either through a wired LAN, such as in a multimedia language lab, or through a wireless local area network, where learners can access it through a portable device such as a portable computer or a personal digital assistant (PDA) with a wireless receiver module. This may be a good alternative when we desire a more personalized learning mode. However, in developing countries such devices can be expensive, even though gradually more and more people are finding they can afford them. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h4>DVD player and TV</h4>Perhaps the most effective and realistic way to play video clips in the classroom for language instruction is the simple combination of DVD player and television set. This is because, due to their affordable price, both are easy to acquire even in the developing world. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>How to use video in the classroom for language learning activities</h3>Once video clips have been collected, we need to decide how to use them in the classroom. Teachers can choose from many techniques for teaching language using video, but failing to recognize which technique is appropriate may result in the unsuccessful achievement of a lesson aim. The following are some common techniques that can be adopted when teachers use video clips for language instruction. <br />
<ol><li>Predicting the content</li>
In this technique teachers play a video clip and use the pause button to stop the action at selected points. Students are asked to guess what happens next.
<li>Clips without sound</li>
For lower level learners this technique can be used to review vocabulary, such as signs, adjectives, occupations, buildings and many others. For Intermediate learners, such tasks as imagining what is being said, or dialogue-making based on the scene being played are suitable. These are rewarding activities since they promote personalization of content and creative use of language. In a similar activity, learners can be asked to provide a running commentary while they watch a clip without sound. Students narrate what they see just like a football match commentator. This activity may be suitable for more advanced learners.
<li>Sound Only-What’s going on?</li>
In this activity, with the screen blank, learners can be asked to listen carefully and identify the sounds they hear, and then discuss and predict what is happening in the video clip. Naturally, this technique results in listening practice, but it also affords useful speaking opportunities.
<li>Freeze frame</li>
This technique encourages question and answer activities. A teacher plays a clip and stops at certain points and asks learners such questions as: ‘what is he wearing?’, ‘what color is the car?’, ‘what is going to happen next?’ After that, students can be instructed to ask and answer questions in pairs.
<li>Viewing backwards</li>
In this activity a video clip is played backwards. At certain points, the teacher asks a question such as, ‘what do you think happened before this?’, ‘who do you think did this thing’, ‘where do you think he is coming from’. This technique is similar to the one we have seen, predicting the content of the clip, but in this case learners are presented with a greater challenge. In addition, the slightly bizarre effect can be attractive and motivating to students,
<li>Eyewitness</li>
Group the students into two teams. Group A wait outside the classroom while Group B watch a video clip. Group A then act as policemen looking for facts by asking structured questions and finally they guess what was happening in the clip. This activity mimics the actions of police and eyewitness in the real world. </ol>Undoubtedly there are other activities that can be used with video. One way to find and share such techniques is by subscribing to language teaching groups available in many e-group providers such as Google Groups and Yahoo Groups. <br />
From the teacher’s point of view, the most important thing is to consider carefully what technique is appropriate to a particular learning point or skill. The aim of the lesson should determine the selection of activity, rather than vice versa. As long as the teacher keeps this in mind, learners can derive great benefit from a wide range of video activities. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Bibliography</h3><br />
<ul><li>Ariew, R., & Frommer, J. (1987). Interaction in the computer age. In W. Rivers, <span class="italic">Interactive Language Teaching</span> (pp. 177-193). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Canning-Wilson, C. (2000). Practical aspects of using video in the foreign language classroom. <span class="italic">The Internet TESL Journal , 6</span> (11).</li>
<li>Godwin-Jones, R. (2007). Emerging technologies. <span class="italic">Language, Learning, & Technology , 11</span> (11), 16-21.</li>
<li>Harmer, J. (2001). <span class="italic">The Practice of English LanguageTeaching</span>. Cambridge: Longman.</li>
<li>Herron, C. A., Hanley, J. E., & Cole, S. P. (1995). <span class="italic">The Modern Language Journal , 79</span> (3), 387-395.</li>
<li>Richards, J. C. (2001). <span class="italic">Curriculum Development in Language Teaching</span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>
</ul><div>source: http://callej.org</div><br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Author</h3><b>Mokhamad Syaifudin</b> has been an English teacher for almost 12 years, at both secondary and tertiary level in Indonesia. At the moment, I am also a CALL teacher practitioner and Master Teacher Trainer working on an Australia-Indonesian project serving almost 700 schools in Indonesia to train secondary school English teachers. My main interests are in integrating technology with classroom instruction, Computer Assisted Language Learning, and Internet-based language instruction.<br />
</div></div><div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2010, Mokhamad Syaifudin & CALL-EJ Online. All rights reserved. </div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-88878449461724374742011-12-03T18:37:00.003-08:002011-12-03T18:37:31.064-08:00Task-based learning in the computer-mediated communicative ESL/EFL classroom<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Task-based learning in the computer-mediated communicative ESL/EFL classroom </h3><div class="post-header"></div><div class="outline"><div class="journal"><ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online</li>
<li>Vol. 11, No. 1, July 2009</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"><h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"><ul><li>Bryan Smith</li>
<li><a href="mailto:bryansmith@asu.edu">bryansmith@asu.edu</a></li>
<li>Arizona State University, U.S.A.</li>
</ul></div><div class="article"><div class="chapter"><h3>Abstract</h3>Synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) has been shown to have direct and indirect benefits for classroom-based second language development. This paper reports on a classroom-based study that explores some of these potential benefits for younger learners of English in a North American (US) public school ESL classroom setting. Data from learner-learner chat interaction are used to illustrate several of these potential benefits as well as some drawbacks to using such a pedagogical approach with younger language learners. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Introduction</h3>Research into task-based synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) has yielded evidence that such interaction can be facilitative of second language development (see Ortega, 2009 for overview). SCMC is instantaneous written communication via computer often occurring over a local area network. Such communication is more commonly known as "chatting". The purported benefits include an increased participation among students, an increased quantity and heightened quality of learner output, an amplified attention to linguistic form, and an increased willingness to take risks with their second language (Pellettieri, 1999; Smith, 2004). The printed text may also add to the salience of input and output, especially the noticing of non-target like input and output (Izumi, 2003; Salaberry, 2000; Smith, 2004). This heightened saliency of linguistic input and output is a favorable byproduct of the computer-mediated communication (CMC) interface, with this increased saliency due largely to the permanence of the written message on the screen. The use of specific types of communicative tasks compliment the potential benefits of computer-mediated interaction described above in that certain particular task design features seem to elicit specific learner linguistic behavior, such as negotiated interaction, that is favorable for positive classroom-based second language development. This study explores the potential benefits of task-based SCMC within the framework of a classroom-based empirical study in a North American K-12 ESL classroom. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>The role of task type in eliciting leaner interaction</h3>Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) cited two recurrent features common to virtually all discussions of tasks in the second language pedagogy literature -- goals and activity. The model they put forward has been widely used in task-based CMC research (Blake, 2000; Pellettieri, 1999; Smith, 2003; 2004) and is the one that informed the current study. The first feature in Pica et al.' model is that tasks are focused on goals. That is, participants are expected to arrive at some outcome, which they accomplish through their verbal (or in this case written) interaction. The second feature is activity, which suggests that participants take an active role in carrying out the task. These two categories affect the task's impact on opportunities for learner comprehension of input, feedback on production, and interlanguage modification. <br />
According to Pica et al. (1993), jigsaw tasks should elicit the highest amount of negotiated interaction among pairs of learners. In terms of interactional activity, jigsaw tasks are those in which learners hold a different portion of the information and must request and supply information in order to complete the task. A picture-based sequential ordering activity is a common example of such a task. The goal of arranging the pictures in the proper sequence is shared by both participants and therefore convergent in nature. The combination of these two features is argued to elicit more negotiated interaction than other task types in their typology (like opinion-exchange and decision-making tasks). </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Benefits of task-based SCMC</h3>The potential benefits to the students of task-based SCMC instruction may be classified into two broad categories, direct and indirect. Direct benefits are those which are the direct result from the SCMC interaction itself or directly related to the SCMC interaction. In contrast, indirect benefits are those resulting from the SCMC interaction but which are mediated in some way by the instructor. I will discuss one example of each type drawing directly from the current data. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Direct benefits - Negotiated interaction</h3>Recent research suggests that negotiated interaction in a SCMC environment is plentiful, effective, and varies as a function of task type (Smith, 2003; 2004). Long's Interaction Hypothesis (1996) states that negotiation for meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by a native speaker or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways. Such negotiation can direct learners' attention to either a discrepancy between their interlanguage and the target language or to an area of the target language about which a learner has little or no information. Learning may take place during this negotiated interaction, or negotiation may provide an initial step, serving as a "priming device" for learning (Gass, 1997; Mackey, 1999). Smith (2004) has shown that negotiated interaction in a SCMC context centers mainly on vocabulary, much like that found in the face-to-face literature. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Indirect benefits - Evidence of interlanguage development</h3>The written target language record captured in CMC may provide the instructor with rich information regarding the stage of interlanguage development of learners. One theoretical foundation upon which instructors may be able to build target-language instructional plans is the Teachability hypothesis (Pienemann, 1985). This hypothesis states that "instruction can only promote language acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point where the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting (so that sufficient processing prerequisites are developed)" (Pienemann 1985:35). That is, many developmental features of language are not amenable to instruction in that one may only successfully teach learners such structures when they are ready to learn them. In contrast, other variable features such as copula "be" and vocabulary can be taught successfully anytime. <br />
Chat logs or chatscripts are those transcript text files that are automatically saved during the interaction. These may be used as a tool in helping instructors identify the developmental stage of their students in terms of specific grammatical structures and which developmental features of the target language learners may be ready to learn. This information may be helpful in guiding instructors in where to focus their energies. Likewise, the chatscripts may be equally valuable in assessing which variable features of language need to be addressed. I will focus my discussion on two areas which seem to progress along developmental stages of acquisition, Question formation (syntax) and morphology. I will draw directly on data from a recent empirical study, which explored the benefits and nature of task-based CMC interaction among middle school-aged learners in an ESL classroom environment. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Purpose of Study</h3>The present exploratory study sought to answer the following broad research question: Is there evidence of direct and indirect target language benefits of task-based computer-mediated communication for younger learners of English in a public school ESL classroom setting? </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Method</h3><h3>Participants</h3>The learners in this study were 7th and 8th grade learners of English (n=18). Fifteen of the eighteen were Spanish L1 speakers -the other three were Korean L1 speakers. They were classified as beginner-high level based on a district test of English for non-native speakers. These classes met separately at different times of the day with the same ESL teacher. The classroom was equipped with 12 networked computers. The chat interface in Blackboard was used for synchronous (or instantaneous) communication among pairs of learners. The text of each session was automatically logged and saved to a text file for future evaluation. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Procedures</h3>Over the course of two months the researcher and the classroom teacher collaborated to sculpt four task-based pair-work communicative activities for learners to complete online in a synchronous mode. Since all participants would have to take a state English proficiency test (Stanford English Language Proficiency test) later in the year the speaking section of this test was used as the basis for the activities described in this study. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Tasks</h3>One of the speaking sections of this test is a task that requires students to look at a series of three pictures and retell the story that is reflected in these pictures. In order to sculpt tasks from these materials that would be consistent with a jigsaw task (as described in Pica et al.,1993), the pictures from four practice test "story retelling" sections were segmented and reordered so that for each task each learner had two pictures. These tasks were administered over the course of two months as scheduling allowed with the first task being counted as a "practice task" whereby learners could ask questions of the teacher and researcher and essentially get acquainted with the task type. Since there were originally three pictures per task that means that the learners shared one of the pictures. An example of one of the tasks can be found in Appendix A. <br />
The first task for learners was to decide which picture they shared.<a href="http://callej.org/journal/11-1/smith.html#1">1</a> Learners were told to do this by describing their pictures in detail to their partner. The second step was to order the three different pictures sequentially. Since there was the convergent goal of correctly ordering the pictures to which there was only one reasonable solution as well as a clear requirement to interact with their partner in order to complete the task successfully, a high amount of communicative interaction was expected. After they felt they had the correct sequence learners were to "retell" the story from start to finish in as precise English as they could. There was a twenty-minute time limit put on the online part of the activity. Once learners felt they were finished with this third part they were instructed to print out their work and sit together with their partner to edit their final version of the story. The culminating part of this activity was for one person per dyad to read their story aloud. If the speaker had difficulty his/her partner could offer assistance. The results below report on only the first two parts of the activity, and illustrate the value of this type of task-based instruction in terms of direct benefits to learners during task completion and indirect benefits based on follow-up activities initiated by the teacher. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Coding and Data Analysis</h3>In an effort to quantify how much negotiated interaction occurred across all three tasks the transcripts for all dyads were coded for instances of negotiation. The coding scheme for CMC negotiation outlined in Smith (2003) was used. This scheme is based largely on that by Varonis & Gass (1985). In this model negotiation episodes consist of a minimum of three parts, a trigger, an indicator of non-understanding, and a response to the indicator. A fourth optional phase known as the reply to the response is also common. Smith (2003) argues that in SCMC this fourth phase while still technically optional almost always occurs since the text-based medium of communication requires a more explicit ratification that the problem has been resolved. In this model there are also two additional optional phases of negotiation routines. These are known as the confirmation and reconfirmation phases respectively. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Results</h3>I will present and discuss the findings in terms of one direct and one indirect benefit of task-based CMC and will illustrate these benefits with data from the present study. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Direct benefit - Negotiation</h3>The transcripts yielded a total of six (6) negotiation episodes. One of these was a negotiation around the task procedures and the remaining five were all in nature. There were no negotiations around morphosyntax. Taken together the negotiation data are consistent with previous research on face-to-face (Pica, 1994) and CMC (Smith, 2004) which finds most negotiation triggers to be lexically based with very little negotiation around grammar. This modest amount of negotiation is also consistent with previous research, which suggests that though negotiation can and does occur among lower proficiency level students, it is much more prevalent among intermediate-level learners (Pica, 1994). <br />
I will use the example of the negotiation routine that was triggered by the task procedures to illustrate a prototypical negotiation episode. Example 1 below shows the typical trigger, indicator, response, and reply to the response sequence that characterizes negotiation routines. The time stamp is found to the right of the text and reflects the exact time the writer sends his/her message to the interlocutor. This time stamp is essential for instructors using chat transcripts as a pedagogical tool since it can often clarify seemingly "disjointed" turns and odd-looking discourse. In Example 1 the trigger seems to be the entire line 1, which seems indecipherable to learner A in line 2, as shown by the (global) indicator of non-understanding "what." In line 3 G provides the needed clarification that seems to be sufficient to A in line 4. At this point the pair is ready to resume their main focus in completing the task. <br />
Example 1 Negotiation around task <br />
<ol><li>G: wath douse your have that is different 11:42:22 Trigger </li>
<li>A: what!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11:43:02 Indicator </li>
<li>G: we have to make up the story because we all ready have the same picture 11:44:15 Response </li>
<li>A: ok how should we make it 11:44:41 Reply to response </li>
</ol>In Example 2 below we see the trouble spot is with M's misspelling and segmenting of the word inside. After an indication of non-understanding by A (clarification request), M elaborates by offering "in the house" in line 3. Lines 4 and 5 bring the negotiation to a close and reaffirm that understanding has been achieved.<br />
Example 2 Lexical <br />
<ol><li>M: then it started rainig and they had to live to their house and eat in saed 11:35:26 </li>
<li>A: in what saed what dose that mean 11:35:54 </li>
<li>M: in the house 11:36:20 </li>
<li>A: oh may bad then but in the picture it looks like they are eating in the car 11:37:05 </li>
<li>M: thats after it stared eating 11:37:51 </li>
</ol>Example 3 Lexical <br />
<ol><li>C: and theis a car under the car 11:30:57 </li>
<li>T: What???? 11:31:22 </li>
<li>C: i mean there is a blue car under the claund 11:31:43 </li>
<li>T: Ok? 11:31:54 </li>
<li>T: So set go to picture two 11:32:06</li>
</ol></div>In Example 3 we see the effect on C of T's indicator of non-understanding. In this case the beneficiary of the negotiation routine is not T but rather C. This excerpt shows how the indicator of non-understanding pushes C to review and clarify what he said by making it more specific. Thus, negotiation routines can directly benefit either half of the dyad. Of course the spelling of "cloud" is not correct, but it was apparently sufficient to allow the learners to continue on with the task. It may be the case that instances such as that in line 3 force learners (learner C in this case) to focus their attention on the lexical item they need to use to sufficiently describe the picture. <br />
Example 4 Lexical <br />
<ol><li>C: My picture A1 is were this family is going for pinic and it raining 11:30:15 </li>
<li>P: yes 11:30:59 </li>
<li>P: mine is the same 11:31:17 </li>
<li>P: do you mean picnic? 11:31:34 </li>
<li>C: What is you A2 11:31:39 </li>
<li>P: a2is teh family 11:31:59 </li>
<li>P: eating 11:32:00 </li>
<li>P: picnic 11:32:05 </li>
<li>P: and b1 is blue car 11:32:1 </li>
<li>P: I think is is raining 11:32:53 </li>
<li>C: yes my second is same as yours 11:33:03 </li>
<li>P: i think all of our pictures are the same 11:33:28 10 lines of text<br />
</li>
<li>P: I thikn that b1 is drivin to the picnic 11:35:35 4 lines of text<br />
</li>
<li>C: then they are sitting in pinic table 11:37:00 </li>
</ol>The interaction in Example 4 above illustrates several things. Most important is that though P clearly provides evidence that C's spelling of "picnic" is faulty, C does not seem to pick up on this, despite three target-like examples of the proper spelling of the word. Though there is a clear indication of non-understanding by P in line 4, C seems to disregard the attempt at clarification, at least at first. Thus, even with the argued heightened salience of the input due to the written mode and permanence of the message, learners do not always show evidence of focusing on form where we might expect it. <br />
Example 5 Lexical <br />
<ol><li>A: and the dog givet to she the sombrero 2:01:26 </li>
<li>M: the gril was walking and the air came so fast and she is traing tohold the hot and the iar keeped owy from her 2:01:47 </li>
<li>M: what is sombrero mean 2:02:13 </li>
<li>M: tri to say in inglish 2:02:44 </li>
<li>A: sombrero is hot am sorie bata obato 2:03:02 </li>
<li>M: soi bato 2:03:23 9 </li>
<li>M: ok </li>
<li>A: i think the dog brin the hot for the gril and I think this is the last part of the story 2:04:36 </li>
</ol>Example 5 shows an interesting use of the indicator of non-understanding by M in that she is either feigning non-understanding in order to push A to use the target language or she is unclear about the translation for "sombrero" (lines 3 and 4). In line 2 M offers an attempt at the word "hat" (sombrero), which A seems to accept and incorporate (albeit incorrectly) in lines 5 and 8. This helps explain why in line 1 learner A avoided any attempt at "hat" and opted for an L1 translation. This exchange also provides evidence for the rare occurrence of learners taking over non-target-like exemplars of the target language and using it productively; one reason many instructors may shy away from using non-native/non-native speaker group-work in language instruction. Nevertheless, this short exchange can aid learning in an indirect sense in that this error illuminates a "teachable moment" that might have gone undetected by the instructor during face-to-face pair/group work. <br />
Example 6 Lexical <br />
<ol><li>T: the the girl old the hat </li>
<li>C: and she was very happy because has your hat and she go and play </li>
<li>T: for the wind not take again </li>
<li>C: r u crazy???????? or what???? </li>
<li>C: she is not old!!!!!!!!!!!! </li>
<li>T: am sorry hold the hat </li>
<li>C: with the dog the end </li>
<li>C: is ok </li>
</ol>Example 6 shows a prototypical and successful negotiation routine. T's misspelling of "hold" in line 1 is addressed by C in lines 4 and 5. It seems clear that the confusion surrounded a typo that was also coincidentally a separate and valid English word (old/hold). Nevertheless, we may say that the negotiation forced T to focus on form (spelling) </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Indirect benefits of SCMC</h3>As mentioned above, chatscripts resulting from synchronous CMC interaction may provide some guidance to teachers in terms of their assessment of their learners' interlanguage development: First, these chatscripts may help teachers in determining the current stage for certain developmental features of the target language. Second, the chatscripts may illustrate problematic variable features of learner language, such as the use of copula "be" or vocabulary, which may be addressed without respect to learner "readiness" to acquire these features. The indirect benefits of SCMC obtained from the current study will be demonstrated with reference to question formation and morphology. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Question formation</h3>Pienemann, Johnston, and Brindley (1988) described a sequential order in the acquisition of questions by learners of English from a variety of L1 backgrounds. Thus question formation in English may be considered a developmental feature of English (and other languages). Examples 7 and 8 below are complete lists of attempts at question formation by two learners (from the same paired interaction). <br />
In Example 7 we see evidence that A is at least at stage 3 (see below) of question formation (see Table 1). Though there is an exemplar of stage 5 ability, it seems that an instructor may proceed cautiously with instruction on stage 4 questions. <br />
Table 1: Stages of ESL question formation <br />
<table border="1"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Stage</th> <th>Syntax</th> <th>Examples</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center">6</td> <td align="left">Cancel inversion</td> <td align="left">I wonder what she is eating</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="3">5</td> <td align="left">Do2nd</td> <td align="left">Why did she eat that?</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Aux2nd</td> <td align="left">Where have you lost it</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">NegDo2nd</td> <td align="left">He does not like it</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="3">4</td> <td align="left">Y/N inversion</td> <td align="left">Have you seen him?</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Copula inversion</td> <td align="left">Is she at home? Where is she?</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Particle shift</td> <td align="left">Turn the tap off</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="5">3</td> <td align="left">Wh-fronting</td> <td align="left">Where you have been?</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Topicallisation</td> <td align="left">This teacher I like</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Do fronting</td> <td align="left">Do he live here?</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Adverb fronting</td> <td align="left">Today he stay here</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Neg+ Verb</td> <td align="left">He don’t ask</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="3">2</td> <td align="left">Neg+SVO</td> <td align="left">No me live here</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">SVO?</td> <td align="left">You live here?</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">SVO</td> <td align="left">John eat rice</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="2">1</td> <td align="left">Single words</td> <td align="left">Where is X? How are you? Hello</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Formulae</td> <td align="left"><br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>Compiled from Pienemann (1998)<br />
Example 7 A's questions <br />
<ol><li>dose it has a flower (stage 3) Do-fronting </li>
<li>what coloer are the flowers (stage 5) Do/Aux 2nd </li>
<li>do you have them in oder know (stage 3) Do-fronting </li>
</ol>G's performance illustrated in Example 8 is more problematic in some ways since she uses stage 3, 4, and 5 question constructions. Based on this evidence it seems that G is "ready" for stage 4 or 5 instruction. <br />
Example 8 G'questions <br />
<ol><li>can you describe more your picture (stage 4) Y/N inversion </li>
<li>ok how many rabbit are you have (stage 5) Do/Aux 2nd </li>
<li>what eating the rabbit and where eating (stage 3) Wh-fronting </li>
<li>what do you think about my opinion..... (stage 5) Do/Aux 2nd </li>
<li>can you told me how is your first picture (stage 4) Preserve the question word order, even in embedded </li>
</ol></div><div class="chapter"><h3>Morphology</h3>Pienemann (1998) also proposes stages of English morphology acquisition. These stages are listed in Table 2. I will focus on learners' use or attempted use of the bound morpheme -ing (a stage 2 feature) in an effort to compare learners' relative acquisition of ESL morphology. I then discuss briefly how SCMC chatscripts of interactive communicative pair tasks can assist the teacher in targeted instruction or may at least inform the instructor's expectations for particular learners. The present data yielded several attempts by learners to use the present continuous (progressive) tense as well as many instances of omissions of its use in obligatory contexts. Five learners total showed evidence of using or attempting to use the -ing morpheme. <br />
Table 2: Stages in the acquisition of ESL morphology <br />
<table border="1"><tbody>
<tr> <th>Stage</th> <th>Morphology</th> <th>Examples</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center">6</td> <td align="left">-</td> <td align="left">-</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="1">5</td> <td align="left">3rd person sing -s</td> <td align="left">She eats good food</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="1">4</td> <td align="left">-</td> <td align="left">-</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="2">3</td> <td align="left">Possessive -s</td> <td align="left">Pat's cat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Plural agreement</td> <td align="left">Two cats</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="4">2</td> <td align="left">Generic plural -s</td> <td align="left">The students go to school</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Possessive pronoun</td> <td align="left">My cat</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Past -ed</td> <td align="left">She played yesterday</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">-ing</td> <td align="left">Going</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="center" rowspan="2">1</td> <td align="left">Single words</td> <td align="left">Where is X? How are you? Hello</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left">Formulae</td> <td align="left"><br />
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>Compiled from Pienemann (1998)<br />
In line 3 (student H) of Example 9 we see a violation of plural agreement with the verb, but this erNor is not repeated in line 4. However, line 5 shows evidence of agreement problems once again if we are to interpret "there hungry" as an attempt at "they are hungry." Given the apparent mastery of the -ing form as well as other stage 2 morphemes such as possessive pronouns, our expectations for this learner may be at stage 3 morphology or higher. <br />
Example 9 <br />
Student H <br />
<ol><li>My picture has a rabbit that is eat<u>ing</u> a leaf. </li>
<li>*So~I have the rabbit that is eat<u>ing</u> leaf </li>
<li>*Two rabbits that is <u>eating</u> a leaf! I told you... </li>
<li>There are 2 rabbits that are shar<u>ing</u> a leaf by the garden. </li>
<li>*The rabbit is eat<u>ing</u> because there hungry. </li>
</ol>Student E <br />
<ol><li>The second is the two Rabitt is eat<u>ing</u> together. </li>
<li>*The A2 picture is the rabitt is eat___ the leaf </li>
</ol>Based on the evidence above, we may say that although E does attempt to use the -ing form, he does so with mixed success. Also, line 1 shows a plural agreement error (stage 3). It seems that E is currently acquiring stage 2 morphology and shows evidence of clearly attempting to use stage 2 and 3 features. <br />
Example 10 <br />
Student P <br />
<ol><li>what are you do<u>ing</u>. </li>
<li>*where are you sit___ </li>
<li>*First the family is go___ to camp to the park and then when the family is eat<u>ing</u> one cloud gray is com<u>ing</u> and started rain___ and the family is go___ to the house </li>
<li>*ok. I am talk___ with you </li>
<li>*...and then the family is eat<u>ing</u> inside the car and the family is go___ to the home </li>
</ol>Student M <br />
<ol><li>*what are you think___. </li>
<li>*the family is eat<u>ing</u> in the park thend one big cloud is commingthen all the family go to the car </li>
<li>what are you do<u>ing</u> </li>
</ol>There are various stage 2 violations of the -ing form in Example 10. There are, however, many target-like attempts at the feature, but also many obligatory case omissions. It seems that student P is ready for more focused instruction on the -ing form. What is interesting to note is that there were no corrections from P's interlocutor (student M) on any of the omissions even though M seems to have a fairly good grasp of this feature. A careful examination of M's use of the -ing form, however, shows that he effectively uses the -ing form with the same verbs as P (to do, to come, to eat). He does not attempt to use the -ing form with the verb "to think." This may account for his lack of "other correction" and may suggest to the teacher that both learners would benefit from targeted instruction of this feature. <br />
This may account for his lack of "other correction" and may suggest to the teacher that both learners would benefit from targeted instruction of this feature. <br />
Example 11 <br />
Student N <br />
<ol><li>In one afternoon the girl Jessica is go___ to the park, when the girl is walk___ for the streets the air is come___ very fast and the hat of the girl is fly___ she ran back of the hat but the girl look a dog is go___ to she and the girl say thank for give__ me hat. </li>
</ol>In contrast to the learners in Examples 9 and 10, student N shows no attempt at using the present continuous tense in obligatory cases. There is also no attempt at possessive pronouns (stage 2) where they may be expected. This suggests that she is not as advanced as those learners discussed above, at least in terms of morphology development. This is valuable information for the instructor to have when planning instruction, grouping, and developing tasks for classroom use. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Conclusion</h3>The modest data presented above provide an illustration of some of the linguistic behavior among learners of English in a specific and ecologically valid context. While engaged in tasks specifically designed to elicit a high degree of learner-learner interaction, students did engage in negotiation of meaning surrounding lexical items. Negotiation has been argued to be beneficial for SLA. There was no negotiation around any aspect of grammar. Since lower proficiency learners are more likely to focus on meaning over form, and since lexical items generally carry more "weight" in communicating basic meaning than does grammar, this result is not surprising. The data also show that learners, even at this early stage, engage in compensatory strategies and modify their own output when faced with instances of communicative breakdown or non-understanding - often resulting in more target-like modifications. There was also evidence that not all learners notice moves by their interlocutor indicating problems with form (in this case spelling). At the same time there was evidence of learners incorporating the target-like (and sometimes non-target-like) input from their interlocutors. In terms of more indirect benefits of SCMC the data show that chat records may provide good diagnostic information for teachers about the interlanguage stage of their students. Such information may help instructors to make better data-driven decisions regarding which grammatical features to target (and when) for each learner. <br />
<div class="chapter"><h3>Pedagogical implications</h3>In any discussion of pair or group work involving exclusively non-native speakers (NNSs), there are some common reservations that teachers often express. These are essentially fears teachers may have about forfeiting some control of the classroom, the difficulty in monitoring each of the groups, student use of their L1 during task completion, and student reinforcement or incorporation of peer's errors (Brown, 2001). The first two of these are not specific to NNS-NNS group work, but group work in general and are essentially classroom management issues. Whether or not to allow the use of the L1 is largely a philosophical issue about which attitudes vary widely. This issue is also sensitive to things like learner age and proficiency level. The last fear, the reinforcement and/or incorporation of others' errors has been tested empirically. The research into this area has found that NNSs generally do not "miscorrect" target-like utterances and generally do not incorporate non-target-like utterances into their immediate production (Gass & Varonis, 1989; Pica, Lincoln-Porter, Paninos, & Linnell, 1996; Porter, 1986), though there was some evidence of the latter in the current data. Further, research suggests that NNS children engaged in communicative pair tasks seem to utilize feedback more if their interlocutor is another NNS. Child NNS-NNS dyads have also been found to take advantage of the opportunity to produce modified output more often than adult NNS-NNS dyads (Mackey, Oliver, and Leeman, 2003).<br />
Because of the nature of SCMC communication, the smaller the group size the better, with pairs being the best option in my opinion. However, larger groups will inevitably be required from time to time. In this case I would suggest assigning the third (or fourth) participants an "observer" status, where they are assigned one or the other task sheet but do not actively participate in typing. Rather, they simply closely follow along with the progression of the interaction. After the actual interaction, they are also expected to complete the task as described above. Though they may not gain the same type of benefit from feedback on their own output, some research shows that simply observing negotiated interaction leads to similar gains in certain types of comprehension and acquisition (Ellis, Tanaka, and Yamazaki, 1994), though there is also research that shows a clear increased benefit for active participation (Mackey, 1999). <br />
<div class="chapter"><h3>Reflections</h3>In reflecting on this study it seems clear that the tasks and activities presented here offered students many opportunities for learning. First of all they were highly motivating for the students since they knew these tasks reflected a high-stakes test they would face in the near future. Second, because of the task structure, there were many opportunities to negotiate meaning. Learners were asked to produce much more of the target language in this setting than they would normally do in their typical face-to-face setting. Likewise, they were each the recipients of rich input from their interlocutor. <br />
I am, however, also struck by the paradoxical relationship many of these school-age youngsters seem to have with computer technology. Though young people growing up in the information age are certainly quite sophisticated when it comes to computer use, we seem to be slow in harnessing the potential of computer technology for second language pedagogy; at least when it comes to employing the computer as a tool for authentic communication rather than simply as a tutor. The students in this study viewed such use of computers for language learning as quite novel. This suggests that even today computer technology may not be regularly or effectively integrated into the language learning curriculum. This is most likely the result of a certain degree of trepidation many school districts have about the potential dangers of the internet. A possible solution may be for school districts to consider setting up local area networks where the school computers could "chat" with each other while being blocked from "chatting" with unknown computers outside of the school. In this way, learners could reap the potential social and cognitive benefits of such synchronous interaction, while eliminating any potential threats. <br />
<div class="chapter"><h3>Endnotes:</h3><ol><a href="http://poison-party.blogspot.com/2010/12/task-based-learning-in-computer.html" name="1"></a>
<li><a href="http://poison-party.blogspot.com/2010/12/task-based-learning-in-computer.html" name="1">Not all participants were present for all sessions.</a> </li>
</ol><div class="chapter"><h3>References</h3><br />
<ul><li>Blake, R. (2000). Computer mediated communication: A window on L2 Spanish interlanguage. <span class="italic">Language Learning & Technology</span>, 4, 120-36.</li>
<li>Brown, H.D. (2001). <span class="italic">Teaching by Principles</span>. White Plains, NY: Longman.</li>
<li>Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A. (1994). <span class="italic">Classroom interaction, comprehension, and the acquisition of word meanings. Language Learning, 44, 449-491.</span></li>
<li>Gass, S. M. (1997). <span class="italic">Input, interaction, and the second language learner</span>. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.</li>
<li>Gass, S. M., & Varonis, E. M. (1989). Incorporated repairs in non-native discourse. In M. R. Eisenstein (Ed.), <span class="italic">The dynamic interlanguage: Empirical studies in second language variation</span> (pp. 71-86). New York: Plenum Press. </li>
<li>Izumi, S. (2003). Comprehension and production processes in second language learning: In search of the psycholinguistic rationale of the output hypothesis. <span class="italic">Applied Linguistics</span>, 24, 168-196.</li>
<li>Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (Eds.), <span class="italic">Handbook of second language Acquisition</span> (pp. 413-68). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.</li>
<li>Mackey, A. (1999). Stepping up the pace: An empirical study of input, interaction, and second language development. <span class="italic">Studies in Second Language Acquisition</span>, 21, 557-88.</li>
<li>Ortega, L. (2009). Interaction and attention to form in L2 text-based computer-mediated communication. In A. Mackey & C. Polio (Eds.), <span class="italic">Multiple perspectives on interaction</span> (pp. 226-253). New York, NY: Routledge</li>
<li>Pellettieri, J. (1999).<span class="italic">Why-talk? Investigating the role of task-based interaction through synchronous network-based communication among classroom learners of Spanish</span>. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Davis.</li>
<li>Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes? <span class="italic">Language Learning</span>, 44, 493-27. </li>
<li>Pica, T., Kanagy, R., & Falodun, J. (1993). Choosing and using communication tasks for second language research and instruction. In G. Crookes & S. M. Gass (Eds.), <span class="italic">Tasks and second language learning</span> (pp. 9-34). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.</li>
<li>Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D., & Linnell, J. (1996). Language learners' interaction: How does it address the input, output, and feedback needs of L2learners? TESOL Quarterly, 30, 59-83.</li>
<li>Pienemann, M. (1985). Learnability and syllabus construction. In K. Hyltenstam and M. Pienemann (Eds.), <span class="italic">Modeling and Assessing Second Language Acquisition</span> (pp. 23-75). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.</li>
<li>Pienemann, M. (1998). <span class="italic">Language Processing and Second Language Development</span>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</li>
<li>Pienemann, M., Johnson, M. and Brindley, G. (1988). Constructing an acquisition-based procedure for second language assessment. <span class="italic">Studies in Second Language Acquisition</span>, 10, 217-243.</li>
<li>Porter, P. (1986). How learners talk to each other: Input and interaction in task-centered discussions. In R. Day (Ed.), <span class="italic">Talking to learn</span> (pp. 200-222). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.</li>
<li>Salaberry, R. (2000). Pedagogical design of computer mediated communication tasks: Learning objectives and technological capabilities. <span class="italic">Modern Language Journal</span>, 84, 28-37.</li>
<li>Smith, B. (2003). Computer-mediated negotiated interaction: An expanded model. <span class="italic">The Modern Language Journal</span>, 87, 38-57.</li>
<li>Smith, B. (2004). Computer-Mediated Negotiated Interaction and Lexical Acquisition. <span class="italic">Studies in Second Language Acquisition</span>, 26, 365-398.</li>
<li>Varonis, E. M., & Gass, S. M. (1985). Nonnative-nonnative conversations: A model for negotiation of meaning. .<span class="italic">Applied Linguistics</span>, 6, 71-90.</li>
</ul><div>source: http://callej.org</div></div><div class="chapter"><h3>Author</h3><span class="bold">Bryan Smith</span> is Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics in the department of English at Arizona State University, U.S.A. His main research interests focus on the intersection of SLA theory and CALL. He has published his research in journals such as, CALICO Journal, Language Learning & Technology, The Modern Language Journal, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, System, and TESOL Quarterly among others.</div><div class="chapter"><h3>Appendix A</h3>Directions:<br />
You and your partner each have two pictures on your paper. <b>One</b> of your pictures is the same as one of your partner’s pictures. The other picture is different. This means that there are three pictures total, which make up a short story. You need to do the following: <br />
<ol><li>Describe your pictures to your partner so you both can decide which of your pictures are the same. </li>
<li>Chat with your partner about the remaining pictures and decide which is the correct order -- fist, second, last. Put the three different pictures in the correct order so it makes up a story. </li>
<li>Then write out the story from beginning to end. You will be asked to read it aloud later. </li>
</ol>Make sure you use your best English to chat with your partner. We will print these out later and use them in an activity. <br />
<table><tbody>
<tr> <th align="center">A1</th> <th align="center">A2</th> <th align="center">B1</th> <th align="center">B2</th> </tr>
<tr> <th align="center"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/11-1/smith_image/a1.jpg" /></th> <th align="center"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/11-1/smith_image/a2.jpg" /></th> <th align="center"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/11-1/smith_image/b1.jpg" /></th> <th align="center"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/11-1/smith_image/b2.jpg" /></th> </tr>
</tbody></table></div><div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2009-, Bryan Smith & CALL-EJ Online. All rights reserved.</div></div></div></div></div></div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-1436385606627125702011-12-03T18:06:00.007-08:002011-12-03T18:06:49.343-08:00Designing an E-learning ESP Course: Possibilities and Challenges%3Ch3+class%3D%22post-title+entry-title%22%3E%0D%0A+Designing+an+E-learning+ESP+Course%3A+Possibilities+and+Challenges+%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22post-header%22%3E%0D%0A++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22journal%22%3E%0D%0A+%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EISSN+1442-438X+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ECALL-EJ+Online+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EVol.+9%2C+No.+2%2C+February+2008%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22%3E%0D%0A+%3Cdiv+class%3D%22MsoNormal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+class%3D%22Apple-style-span%22+style%3D%22font-size%3A+medium%3B%22%3E%3Cb%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fb%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22%3E%0D%0A+%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ENebila+Dhieb-Henia+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22mailto%3ANebila_dhieb%40yahoo.com%22%3ENebila_dhieb%40yahoo.com%3C%2Fa%3E+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EInstitut+Sup%C3%A9rieur+des+Langues+de+Tunis%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A+%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AAbstract%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22MsoNormal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+lang%3D%22EN-US%22%3EThe++purpose+of+this+paper+is+to++report+on+a++twofold+experience+in++distance+education%2C+first+as+a+designer+of+an++e-learning+ESP++course++for+Internet+and+Multimedia+Information+%28IMI%29+students+at+the++Virtual++University++of+Tunis+%28VUT%29+during+the+year+2004%2C+and%2C+second%2C+as+a++participant+in+a++ten-week++online+course+on+Teaching+Critical+Thinking++%28TCT%29+offered+by+the++University+of+Oregon++in+October+2006.+Drawing++from+the+literature+as+well+as+the+reality+of++the+local++context+the++possibilities+that+distance+education+offer+for+teaching++languages%2C++this++paper+will+discuss+the+challenges+that+an+EFL%2F+ESP+teacher+may++meet+when++designing++an+online+ESP+course%2C+and+draw+implications+that++may+help+course++designers+make++informed+decisions+to+improve+the++quality+of+e-learning+courses+and+help++teachers++better+understand+ESP++language+teaching+and+learning.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A+%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AIntroduction%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22MsoNormal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+lang%3D%22EN-US%22%3EAt++the+dawn+of+the+21st+century%2C+++the+escalating+use+of+English+worldwide++by+speakers+of+other+languages%2C++especially++its+use+as+the+Lingua++Franca+of+globalisation%2C+and+its+acknowledgment+as++the+language++of++science%2C+technology%2C+and+business+have+led+to+an+ever-increasing++demand++for+English++language+courses+that+respond+to+the+specific+needs+of++different++specialty-area+groups++of+learners.+On+the+other+hand%2C++improvements+in+Information+and++Communication+Technologies++%28ICTs%29+have++led+to+the+development+of+new+ways+and+tools+for+delivering++knowledge++across++physical+distance+and+time+zones+to+reach+people+around+the++globe%E2%80%94of+all++affiliations%2C++ages%2C+cognitive+and+mental+capacities%2C++lifestyles+and+financial++resources+%28Belanger+%26amp%3B++Jordan%2C+2000%29.+The++proliferation+of+e-learning+institutions%2C++synchronous%2Fasynchronous+++online+courses%2C+as+well+as+pre-packaged+courses+on+CDs%2C+may+further+++indicate+this+new++direction+in+knowledge+distribution.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22MsoNormal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+lang%3D%22EN-US%22%3EThe++teaching+of+ESP+per+se+has++already+been++documented+as+being+fraught++with+difficulties%2C+challenges%2C+and++controversies%2C+particularly++in++contexts+where+teacher+training+programs+could+not+keep+abreast+with+++current+demands.++However%2C+increasing+demands+and+requests%E2%80%94+sometimes+on++newly-founded++institutions+such+as++the+Virtual+University+of+Tunis++%28henceforth+VUT%29%E2%80%94for+making+these++courses+available+online++have+posed+a++double+challenge+for+the+ESP+teacher%3A+designing+ESP++materials%2C+and++then++mastering+the+pedagogy+of+the+new+technology+in+order+to+provide++courses++that+respond+to++the+basic+principle+of+accountability.%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A+%3Ch3%3E%0D%0ABackground%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22MsoNormal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+lang%3D%22EN-US%22%3EThe++VUT+was+created+in+January++2002+to+keep+abreast++with+developments+on++the+world+scene%2C+one+of+the+objectives+being+%22to++introduce+and+++generalize+distance+education%2C+to+produce+innovating+teaching+materials+++and+to+make+them++available+for+university+institutions%2C+teachers%2C+and++students+through++the+Internet%2C+and+to++train+users+in+the+design+and++development+of+innovating+applications+and++devices%22+%28VUT++website%2C+at++www.uvt.rnu.tn%29.+%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22MsoNormal%22%3E%0D%0A%3Cspan+lang%3D%22EN-US%22%3EThe++VUT+is+not+restricted+to+any++area+of+study%3A++many+modules+are+offered++in+different+disciplines+in+Fundamental++Sciences+%28e.g.%2C+Maths%2C+++Physics%2C+Chemistry+and+Geology%29%3B+Arts+and+Social+Sciences+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Teachers' Perceptions and Perspectives on Internet-Assisted Language Teaching<div class="title"> <h2>EFL Teachers' Perceptions and Perspectives on Internet-Assisted Language Teaching</h2></div><div class="author"> <ul><li>Hee-Jae Shin </li>
<li><a href="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/mailto=heejae_shin@yahoo.com">heejae_shin@yahoo.com</a> </li>
<li>Buyeo Girls' High School, Korea </li>
<li> </li>
<li>Jeong-Bae Son </li>
<li><a href="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/mailto=sonjb@usq.edu.au">sonjb@usq.edu.au</a> </li>
<li>University of Southern Queensland, Australia </li>
</ul></div><div class="article"> <div class="chapter"> <h3>Abstract</h3>Although the rapid increase of Internet availability has generated great interest in Internet-assisted language teaching (IALT) among English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers, little is known at present about EFL teachers’use of the Internet. This article addresses this issue and reports the results of a study that examined Korean secondary school EFL teachers’ perceptions and perspectives on the use of the Internet for teaching purposes. A total of 101 teachers participated in a survey and responded to the questions of how they think about IALT, how they use the Internet, and what types of resources they use on the Internet. The findings of the study suggest that there are three key factors affecting the use of the Internet in the classroom: teachers’personal interest in Internet use; teachers’ abilities to integrate Internet resources into classroom activities; and computer facilities and technical support in schools. In-service teacher training courses for IALT are strongly recommended to further develop and implement IALT. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Introduction</h3>Along with the impact of information and communication technology (ICT) on society, the Internet is widely used in many sectors. Since the early 1990s, the Korean Ministry of Education has supported and provided primary and secondary schools with multimedia computers, software programs and Internet connections to encourage the use of computers and the Internet for education in Korea. As a result, the Internet has become a useful tool for Korean teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) in schools as they can find and use a variety of resources and materials on the Internet. For this reason, Korean EFL teachers seem to have general interests in the use of the Internet for their teaching purposes. Many teachers, nevertheless, do not seem to make effective use of the Internet for their teaching. In spite of widespread Internet connections in Korean secondary schools, little computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research, particularly on the use of the Internet for teaching EFL to Korean secondary school students, has been conducted so far. The study reported in this article attempts to respond to the need for more CALL research in the Korean context through an investigation of Korean secondary school EFL teachers’perceptions and perspectives on the use of the Internet. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>The Internet and Language Teaching</h3>The Internet is constantly growing in popularity and availability. Many people use the Internet daily, sometimes without even being aware of the fact that they use the Internet on a daily basis. As noted by Warschauer, Shetzer and Meloni (2000), the Internet has been reshaping many aspects of society such as on-line education, advertising, marketing and sales. A number of language teachers have become interested in using the Internet since recent developments in ICT support diversity in learning methods and multimedia materials that can be useful for language learners. The vast amount of information linked by hypertext on the Web seems highly valuable for learners with a self-directed learning style. Each learner is allowed and encouraged “to manage the learning process independently and to explore linked pieces of information non-sequentially on the basis of their personal preferences and needs” (Son, 1998, p. 121). Language teachers, accordingly, can make their classes individualised and personalised, resulting in self-empowerment and autonomy in learning (Warschauer, Turbee & Roberts, 1996). <br />
The Internet is a powerful tool for finding information from educational organizations, governmental organizations, business companies and individuals across the world (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000). The Internet is also an important medium that provides the potential for purposeful and powerful use of on-line communication in language and writing classes (Warschauer, 2000). On the Internet, English as a second/foreign language (ESL/EFL) teachers can reinforce students to use the target language in an authentic setting (Daugherty & Funke, 1998; Moore, 1996; Mosquera, 2001). The Internet can also be a useful tool for collaboration among ESL/EFL learners locally, nationally or globally. It can be used to acquire information from a large number of language resources for a variety of purposes (Daugherty & Funke, 1998; Gonglewski, Meloni & Brant, 2001; Moore, 1996; Pennington, 1996; Ryder & Graves, 1997; Singhal, 1997; Smith, 1997; Warschauer, 2000). <br />
Teachers can not only access the Internet for finding resources for their classes but also supply their own materials, knowledge and ideas for other teachers via the Internet (Warschauer, Shetzer & Meloni, 2000). For example, they can create homepages for the purpose of their lessons and put their materials on-line (Meagher, 1995). Muehleisen (1997) recommends ESL/EFL teachers to utilize the Internet in their classes for motivating students to use the English language outside the classroom and to make the language a part of their daily lives. Kern and Warschauer (2000) indicate that language learners with access to the Internet can potentially communicate with native speakers of English all over the world. They can communicate either on a one-to-one or a many-to-many basis any time they need from school, home or work. Therefore, it is not surprising that many ESL/EFL teachers have embraced Internet-assisted language teaching (IALT) and have developed new ways of using the Internet with their students. <br />
Peterson (2000) points out that an Internet-based learning environment can offer an instructional tool. Ryder and Graves (1997) also assert that the Internet is a dynamic medium, which provides teachers and students with immediate access to tools and resources. Similarly, Daugherty and Funke (1998) describe that the Internet can provide a wealth of information to students that are not readily available in textbooks or lectures. Students can access information and resources simply by having a computer with an Internet connection. The information is usually presented in meaningful contexts to explore widely or specifically. In addition, the use of the Internet can be interactive and collaborative in nature. Through e-mail, conferencing tools and newsgroups, a virtual community of learners can exchange knowledge, ideas and perspectives on certain issues or topics. As a result, the Internet can increase EFL learners’ motivation to learn the English language (Rico & Vinagre, 2000). <br />
The advancement of the Internet has created new ways of learning and teaching ESL/EFL. For instance, the Internet can be considered as an ideal learning and teaching tool because it offers authentic learning resources available without having to travel to English-speaking countries (Gonglewski, Meloni, & Brant, 2001; Singhal, 1997; Smith, 1997). Crystal (1997) notes that an estimated 85% of electronically stored information in the world is in English, so it is important for English language teachers to look at the social, economic, cultural and linguistic consequences of the global spread of the English language influenced by the development of the Internet. Warschauer (1996) also suggests that teachers should think about the implication of the use of the Internet for their classes because the Internet has become so widespread in schools with increasing use by both teachers and students. In addition, Shetzer and Warschauer (2000) put forward that teachers need to learn how to use Internet tools with support and encouragement from their teaching situations. In other words, teachers need to gain knowledge and develop skills to use the Internet effectively in order to maximise on-line teaching. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"><h3>The Study</h3>The subjects in the study were 101 Korean secondary school EFL teachers (52 males and 49 females). The age range of the respondents was from 23 to 60 years with a mean age of 38. Their teaching experience ranged from less than 5 years to more than 25 years with a mean of 13 years. The study used a questionnaire to document Korean secondary school EFL teachers’perceptions and perspectives on the use of the Internet for English language teaching purposes. The questionnaire (Appendix) consisted of three sections: a demographic section to get respondents’background information; a multiple-choice section to find their perceptions and perspectives on the use of the Internet using a modified Likert scale; and an open-ended question section to elicit their general opinions or comments on the use of the Internet for teaching purposes in the classroom. It was distributed on-line and off-line to 150 Korean secondary school EFL teachers in Kyungki and Chungnam provinces in Korea. A total of 101 completed questionnaires had been returned within two-month time and the data collected from the questionnaire were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Results</h3>The results of the questionnaire indicate that a majority of the EFL teachers actually used the Internet for their teaching purposes. The teachers used the Internet more for the preparation of teaching materials than directly with students in the classroom. More than half of the teachers (51 out of 101) used the Internet with their students in the classroom for teaching purposes. Of the 51 teachers who used the Internet with their students in the classroom, 45 teachers used the Internet more than once a month. Most teachers (88 out of 101) also used Internet resources to prepare their teaching materials. Of the 88 teachers who used the Internet for preparation of their teaching materials, 61 teachers used the Internet more than five hours a week. <br />
As shown in Figure 1, the 51 Internet users tended to use more than one Internet activity in their classrooms. Among the types of Internet activities, Web surfing activities were employed most often in their classrooms. <br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/figure1.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 1: Types of Internet activities used in the classroom (N=51)</span> </div>The other 50 teachers, who did not use the Internet in the classroom, also wished to use more than one Internet activity in the classroom if they had Internet-assisted classes. They wished to use crosswords, games and Web surfing activities with their students in the classroom. They also wanted to seek out and use a wider variety of Internet resources if allowed. Both the Internet users and non-users showed common interest in using Web surfing and crosswords activities more frequently than other activities. <br />
The 50 non-users gave the reasons for not using the Internet in the classroom in the following order: limited computer facilities; limited time; teachers’ limited computer skills; teachers’ limited interest; students’ limited English ability; students’ limited interest; teachers’ limited English ability; and/or students’ limited computer skills (See Figure 2). <br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/figure2.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 2: Reasons for preventing Internet use in the classroom (N=50)</span> </div>Most teachers (88 out of 101) used Internet resources to prepare their teaching materials because Internet resources were: varied (49); easy to obtain (42); up-to-date (23); free of charge (17); authentic (16); and easy to understand (15). On the other hand, the 13 non-users reported that: Internet resources were difficult to use with textbooks (6); finding Internet resources were time-consuming (5); they did not have interest in using them (5); and Internet resources were difficult to understand, difficult to obtain or not available (1 respectively). <br />
Less than half of the teachers (46 out of 101) indicated that they had participated in in-service training courses to learn how to use the Internet for teaching purposes. Of the 46 teachers, 36 teachers (78.3%) reported that they were satisfied with the training courses. The 55 non-participants in in-service training courses reported that they had: lack of time (27); no courses available (13); no interest (8); and a distance to training courses (7). In terms of professional development, almost 95 % of the non-participants (52 out of 55) showed their willingness to participate in in-service training courses in the future. <br />
The results of the teachers’responses to Section Two of the questionnaire are given in Table 1. Most teachers generally agreed that the Internet provides them with a rich learning environment (86.1%) and Internet tools can be used for teaching purposes (91.1%). To the question of replacing textbooks with Internet resources, on the other hand, the teachers gave somewhat mixed responses: 67 teachers agreed and 34 teachers disagreed. With the easiness to find ESL/EFL materials on the Web, similarly, 70 teachers showed their agreement while 31 teachers showed their disagreement. However, the teachers gave strong positive responses to the usefulness of ESL/EFL Websites. Most of them also indicated that students could be motivated by the use of the Internet and could improve their language skills through the use of the Internet. In addition, they tended to agree with the possibility of students’ self-directed learning in the use of the Internet and the improvement of students’communication skills by e-mailing or chatting with native speakers of English. <br />
In some cases, the teachers’ disagreement was also found. Approximately 36% of the teachers disagreed that students would be more attentive in Internet-assisted English language teaching classes and teachers are responsible for the success of Internet-assisted English language teaching. More noticeably, about 53.5% of the teachers did not feel competent to use Internet-based materials in the classroom and about 43.5% of the teachers indicated that they did not know how to integrate Internet resources into existing classroom curricula. Following these responses, a large number of the teachers (84.1%) agreed with the need for Internet literacy training and most teachers (89.2%) indicated that they would like to use Internet-based materials and activities in their classrooms as much as possible. <br />
<table><caption> Table 1 Teachers・Responses to the Questionnaire Items (N=101) </caption> <thead>
<tr> <th> </th><th>Strongly Disagree</th><th>Disagree</th><th>Agree</th><th>Strongly Agree</th><th>Mean </th></tr>
</thead> <tbody>
<tr><td>1. The Internet provides non-native speakers of English with a rich learning environment.</td><td>0</td><td>14 (13.9%)</td><td>58 (57.4%)</td><td>29 (28.7%)</td><td>3.15 </td></tr>
<tr><td>2. Internet tools can be used for teaching purposes.</td><td>2 (2.0%)</td><td>7 (6.9%)</td><td>64 (63.4%)</td><td>28 (27.7%)</td><td>3.17 </td></tr>
<tr><td>3. Internet resources can replace textbooks.</td><td>4 (4.0%)</td><td>30 (29.7%)</td><td>55 (54.5%)</td><td>12 (11.9%)</td><td>2.74 </td></tr>
<tr><td>4. It is easy to find ESL/EFL materials on the Web.</td><td>1 (1.0%)</td><td>30 (29.7%)</td><td>58 (57.4%)</td><td>12 (11.9%)</td><td>2.80 </td></tr>
<tr><td>5. ESL/EFL Websites are useful for teaching English.</td><td>1 (1.0%)</td><td>12 (11.9%)</td><td>72 (71.3%)</td><td>16 (15.8%)</td><td>3.02 </td></tr>
<tr><td>6. Students can be motivated by the use of the Internet in the classroom.</td><td>2 (2.0%)</td><td>16 (15.8%)</td><td>70 (69.3%)</td><td>13 (12.9%)</td><td>2.93 </td></tr>
<tr><td>7. Students can improve their English skills through the use of the Internet.</td><td>1 (1.0%)</td><td>18 (17.8%)</td><td>69 (68.3%)</td><td>13 (12.9%)</td><td>2.93 </td></tr>
<tr><td>8. Students can learn how to use Internet resources for learning English for themselves.</td><td>3 (3.0%)</td><td>23 (22.8%)</td><td>63 (62.4%)</td><td>12 (11.9%)</td><td>2.83 </td></tr>
<tr><td>9. Students can improve communication skills by e-mailing or chatting with native speakers of English on-line.</td><td>1 (1.0%)</td><td>12 (11.9%)</td><td>70 (69.3%)</td><td>18 (17.8%)</td><td>3.04 </td></tr>
<tr><td>10. Students will be more attentive in Internet-assisted English language teaching classes.</td><td>5 (5.0%)</td><td>32 (31.7%)</td><td>60 (59.4%)</td><td>4 (4.0%)</td><td>2.62 </td></tr>
<tr><td>11. I am responsible for the success of Internet-assisted English language teaching.</td><td>1 (1.0%)</td><td>36 (35.6%)</td><td>59 (58.4%)</td><td>5 (5.0%)</td><td>2.67 </td></tr>
<tr><td>12. I am competent to use Internet-based materials in the classroom.</td><td>2 (2.0%)</td><td>52 (51.5%)</td><td>41 (40.6%)</td><td>6 (5.9%)</td><td>2.50 </td></tr>
<tr><td>13. I know how to integrate Internet resources into existing classroom curricula.</td><td>7 (6.9%)</td><td>37 (36.6%)</td><td>52 (51.5%)</td><td>5 (5.0%)</td><td>2.54 </td></tr>
<tr><td>14. I need training to improve my Internet literacy skills.</td><td>3 (3.0%)</td><td>13 (12.9%)</td><td>66 (65.3%)</td><td>19 (18.8%)</td><td>3.00 </td></tr>
<tr><td>15. I would like to use Internet-based materials and activities in my classroom as much as possible.</td><td>1 (1.0%)</td><td>10 (9.9%)</td><td>75 (74.3%)</td><td>15 (14.9%)</td><td>3.03 </td></tr>
</tbody> </table>Through the open-ended questions in the questionnaire, the teachers indicated difficulties in using the Internet in the classroom as follows: managing the Internet in the classroom because many students like to play games or Korean chatting sites that are irrelevant to their lessons; not only slow Internet connection or disconnection but also technical problems during the class; finding appropriate teaching materials and integrating Internet resources into their classroom curricula; taking much time to prepare and arrange facilities to use the Internet; and finding students’plagiarism. They are also concerned that: their incompetence in both Internet literacy skills and technical skills; inappropriate English language vocabulary and expressions on the Internet; lack of morality and socializing of students; students’ finance for saving materials instead of writing on their notebooks; and managing the traditional regular class after IALT sessions. <br />
Nonetheless, the teachers made positive comments on the future of IALT in Korea. Their responses included: the Internet can be an effective EFL teaching tool; Internet use has become global for both teachers and students; the Internet provides valuable resources for EFL instruction; the Internet provides various resources for English language teaching and learning because EFL resources on the Internet have been developed in many ways; the Internet can make EFL students creative; many teachers try to teach their students practical English by using Internet resources; and students may want to study English with Internet resources for themselves after class. In addition, there were largely six suggestions to make the future of IALT successful mentioned by the teachers: (1) teachers should motivate students to cooperate and collaborate in the IALT class continuously; (2) teachers should find appropriate Internet resources and integrate them into their classroom teaching properly; (3) schools should provide sufficient computer facilities for both teachers and students to access and use the Internet; (4) teachers should be trained to be competent in using the Internet in the classroom; (5) Internet resources should be developed in line with school textbooks; and (6) teachers should correlate the IALT class with the traditional class. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Discussion </h3>Overall, Korean secondary school EFL teachers’attitudes toward the use of the Internet for teaching purposes were positive. Of the 101 teachers, 51 teachers used the Internet for students in the actual classroom while 88 teachers used it to prepare teaching materials. Most non-Internet users wished to use the Internet if allowed and most non-participants in in-service training courses showed willingness to take training courses if available. A total of 92 teachers believed that Internet resources could be used for teaching purposes. The teachers generally agreed that the use of the Internet could be an effective way of teaching EFL because the Internet provides students with a rich learning environment where they can find authentic resources for learning the English language. The teachers considered the Internet as a useful EFL teaching tool and pointed out that there are a great number of Websites containing various types of learning materials. They also thought that students could improve communication skills on the Internet. At the same time, they expressed the view that they should learn ways of using the Internet for their students who are quite familiar with the Internet. <br />
Most teachers in the study believe that the Internet can be an effective tool for finding authentic resources, sharing information, communicating with target language speakers and motivating students. However, they seem to have difficulties in using the Internet in the classroom. Contextual reasons for not using the Internet include limited computer facilities, limited class hours, inappropriate class size and limited technical support. Unexpected Internet disconnections can be also a problem. If the Internet is disconnected in the classroom without any notice, the class may be disorganized unless the classroom teacher has backup lesson plans. Teachers also need to pay extra attention to students when they have more than 40 students accessing the Internet in a classroom. Students may even visit irrelevant Websites during the class. It would be very difficult for a teacher to prevent this kind of behaviour unless either the class has a small number of students or there is a teaching assistant. Finding or creating well-designed Internet resources or materials can be also time-consuming to teachers. <br />
It seems, nevertheless, that Korean secondary school EFL teachers are aware of the advantages of using the Internet in the classroom, seeing the Internet as an invaluable source of useful information for teaching their teenage students. Social changes and student expectations arising from the rapid development of the Internet request teachers to make effective use of the Internet in schools. Regardless of the difficulties they have in their teaching situations, therefore, teachers need to find ways of working around the situations to provide better EFL instruction. The potential of the Internet can be enormous if they make efforts to find and use Internet resources with positive attitudes. <br />
In IALT, teachers can use different types of teaching methods on the basis of their students’interest or needs. The use of the Internet supports the shift from the traditional teacher-centred classroom to the learner-centred classroom that is a current pedagogical preference in EFL teaching. Interaction with other people using computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools such as e-mail, discussion groups or chatting tools could be socially meaningful. Without being conscious of it, students may no longer consider learning the English language as a required subject in schools. Instead, they may consider the English language as a means of communicating with people from all over the world. <br />
For the effective implementation of IALT, EFL teachers need to be competent enough to use Internet-based materials in the classroom. As suggested by the teachers’responses to the questions of their competency in the use of Internet-based materials and their knowledge of the integration of Internet resources into existing curricular, in-service training courses for IALT should be offered to teachers who need to learn how to use Internet resources, how to create or select Internet-based activities, how to plan Internet-assisted lessons and how to integrate Internet resources into actual classroom teaching. Through the training, which helps them understand pedagogical and technical aspects of IALT, teachers would be able to engage in their professional development and, as a result, their interest and willingness to use Internet-based materials and activities in the classroom could be well responded and constructively put into practice. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Conclusion</h3>The study has demonstrated that teachers have positive views on the use of the Internet for teaching EFL while they have difficulties in finding appropriate teaching materials and in integrating Internet resources into their curriculum. The difficulties seem to be caused by the huge amount of information available on the Internet and limited time to seek useful information. Another difficulty reported by the teachers is the organisation and management of IALT classes. When teachers use the Internet in the classroom, they need carefully selected Internet resources. They also need to address issues of controlling students’ access to lesson-related Websites, managing class time and solving technical problems. To reduce the difficulties, teachers are required to develop Internet literacy and integration skills for themselves or through teacher training courses for IALT. If all EFL teachers undertake well-planned training courses to gain and improve their Internet skills, EFL instruction using Internet resources could be enhanced more actively, collaboratively and consistently across the school system. It is also suggested that schools should be provided with modern, functional computer facilities assisted by technical support. Although teachers report that their schools have computers with Internet connections, they point out that these connections do not seem to be good for use in the classroom yet. That is, teachers need appropriate computer facilities with reliable Internet connections as well as technical support to implement and promote IALT, which can improve the teaching of EFL. What emerges upon reflection on the findings of the study is recognition of the relationship between the Internet and EFL teaching with possibilities of resolving operational issues such as matching teaching and training needs and combining Internet resources into established EFL teaching resources for the effective use of the Internet in EFL classrooms. <br />
</div><div class="author"> <h3>Author</h3><b>Hee-Jae Shin</b> is an EFL teacher at Buyeo Girls' High School in Chungnam Province, Korea. Her main research interest is in Internet-assisted English language teaching and learning.<br />
<b>Jeong-Bae Son</b> is a teacher educator in applied linguistics with specialisation in computer-assisted language learning. He teaches applied linguistics (TESOL & LOTE) courses and supervises research projects in the Faculty of Education at the University of Southern Queensland, Australia. He is currently President of the Asia-Pacific Association for Computer-Assisted Language Learning (<a href="http://www.apacall.org/" target="_blank">http://www.apacall.org</a>).<br />
</div><div class="reference"> <h3>References</h3><ul><li>Crystal, D. (1997). <span class="italic">English as a global language</span>. New York: Cambridge University Press. </li>
<li>Daugherty, M., & Funke, B. L. (1998). University faculty and student perceptions of Web-based instruction. <span class="italic">Journal of distance education</span>, 13(1). Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the World Wide Web: <a href="http://cade.athabascau.ca/vol13.1/daugherty.html" target="_blank">http://cade.athabascau.ca/vol13.1/daugherty.html</a> </li>
<li>Gonglewski, M., Meloni, C., & Brant, J. (2001). Using e-mail in foreign language teaching: Rationale and suggestions. <span class="italic">The Internet TESL journal</span>, 7(3). Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the World Wide Web: <a href="http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Meloni-Email.html" target="_blank">http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Meloni-Email.html</a> </li>
<li>Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Introduction: Theory and practice of network-based language teaching. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), <span class="italic">Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice</span> (pp. 1-19). New York: Cambridge University Press. </li>
<li>Meagher, M. E. (1995). Learning English on the Internet. <span class="italic">Educational leadership</span>, 53(2), 88-90. </li>
<li>Moore, P. (1996). Reading and writing on the Internet. <span class="italic">The Australian journal of language and literacy</span>, 19(4), 317-329. </li>
<li>Mosquera, F. M. (2001). CALT: Exploiting Internet resources and multimedia for TEFL in developing countries. <span class="italic">Computer assisted language learning</span>, 14(5), 461-468. </li>
<li>Muehleisen, V. (1997). Projects using the Internet in college English classes. <span class="italic">The Internet TESL journal</span>, 3(6), 1-7. </li>
<li>Pennington, M. C. (1996). The power of the computer in language education. In M. C. Pennington (Ed.), <span class="italic">The power of CALL</span> (pp. 1-14). Houston: Athelstan. </li>
<li>Peterson, M. (2000). Directions for development in Hypermedia Design. <span class="italic">Computer assisted language learning</span>, 13(3), 253-269. </li>
<li>Rico, M., & Vinagre, F. (2000). A Comparative study in motivation and learning through print-oriented and computer-oriented tests. <span class="italic">Computer assisted language learning</span>, 13(4-5), 457-465. </li>
<li>Ryder, R. J., & Graves, M. F. (1997). Using the Internet to enhance students' reading, writing, and information-gathering skills. <span class="italic">Journal of adolescent & adult literacy</span>, 4(4), 244-254. </li>
<li>Shetzer, H., & Warschauer, M. (2000). An electronic literacy approach to network-based language teaching. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), <span class="italic">Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice</span> (pp. 171-185). New York: Cambridge University Press. </li>
<li>Singhal, M. (1997). The Internet and foreign language education: Benefits and challenges. <span class="italic">The Internet TESL journal</span>, 3(6). Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the World Wide Web: <a href="http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-Internet.html" target="_blank">http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-Internet.html</a> </li>
<li>Smith, B. (1997). Virtual Realia. <span class="italic">The Internet TESL journal</span>, 3(7). Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the World Wide Web: <a href="http://iteslj.org/Articles/Smith-Realia.html" target="_blank">http://iteslj.org/Articles/Smith-Realia.html</a> </li>
<li>Son, J.-B. (1998). Understanding hypertext: A discussion for TEFL. <span class="italic">English teaching</span>, 53(3), 113-124. </li>
<li>Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: An introduction. In S. Fotos (Ed.), <span class="italic">Multimedia language teaching</span> (pp. 3-20). Tokyo: Logos International. </li>
<li>Warschauer, M. (2000). On-line learning in second language classrooms. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), <span class="italic">Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice</span> (pp. 41-58). New York: Cambridge University Press. </li>
<li>Warschauer, M., Shetzer, H., & Meloni, C. (2000). <span class="italic">Internet for English teaching</span>. Virginia: Alexandria: TESOL. </li>
<li>Warschauer, M., Turbee, L., & Roberts, B. (1996). Computer learning networks and student empowerment. <span class="italic">System</span>, 24(1), 1-14. </li>
</ul><div>source: http://callej.org/</div><h3><a href="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/Shin_SonAppendix.pdf">Appendix</a></h3></div></div><div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2007- Hee-Jae Shin, Jeong-Bae Son & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X)</div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-11418858464296955992011-12-03T18:02:00.004-08:002011-12-03T18:02:54.725-08:00Multimedia Technology: Teachers’ Knowledge and Attitudes<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Multimedia Technology: Teachers’ Knowledge and Attitudes </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X </li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online </li>
<li>Vol. 8, No. 2, January 2007</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"> <h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"> <ul><li>Joseph Ramanair and Gerald Uyu Sagat </li>
<li><a href="mailto:rjoseph@cls.unimas.my">rjoseph@cls.unimas.my</a> </li>
<li>Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia <br />
</li>
</ul></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Abstract</h3>The advent of computer multimedia technology in schools have resulted in the presence of computer hardware and software in the language classroom. To harness the potentials of technology, teachers play a pivotal role in ensuring technology use in the English Language Classroom. Hence, there is a need to investigate teachers’knowledge levels and attitudes towards multimedia technology. sThis study seeks to investigate the correlation between knowledge and attitudes of teachers to multimedia technology. 50 teachers, currently teaching English in government secondary schools in Kuching-Samarahan area in Sarawak participated in this study. Data analysis employing the Pearson Co efficiency Correlation calculations matched both components and uncovered a positive correlation. Teacher's responses to the study also indicated the awareness among them of the need to upgrade current knowledge in technology use in the classroom.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Introduction</h3>The proliferation of computers in our society, educational institutions and work places have been overwhelming. Computers and the technologies offered have been hailed as an enhancement and advancement if not, a panacea to many challenges faced in everyday activities. Perhaps the greatest investment of computer technology is into educational institutions, notably the schools. In the context of Malaysia, the Ministry of Education (MoE) Malaysia has embarked on a series of programmes to ensure that more schools are equipped with computer technology. Efforts have been spearheaded by MIMOS (Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic System) (Mimos, 2002) along with the most recent IntelR CentrinoTM mobile technology (Intel, 2004) at selected schools. Both these endeavours witnessed the provision of personal computers and/or multimedia laptops to teachers teaching English Language, Malay Language, Mathematics and Science. Along with these equipments came hardware like the LCD projector and projector screen, all packaged in a trolley fitted with uninterruptible power supply (UPS) facility. These teachers were also provided with multimedia courseware pertaining to the individual subjects which were developed and produced by the Ministry. Such efforts were aimed at facilitating the teaching of Mathematics and Science in English and the teaching of English as a second language, through the application of multimedia technology.<br />
<h3>Multimedia Technology</h3>In the case of the English Language, the pilot venture began at the Form One level. All teachers teaching ESL were provided with these multimedia technology. In its fundamental sense, Lockard et al (1993: 217-233) defines Multimedia as 'any system that unites two or more media into a single product or presentation' where multimedia are divided into two components, that is, the hardware and the software. Further, Warschauer (1996) advocates multimedia technology as allowing an assortment of media involving text, graphics, sound, animation and video "to be accessed on a single machine". Elsewhere, Warschauer& Meskill (2000) recognise multimedia based simulation software as a tool which is able to expose language learners to cultural and linguistic worlds in a meaningful way through audio and visual settings. This in turn would pave the way to ensure that these learners have a degree of control and interactivity to direct their individual learning process.<br />
And, in this context, the provision of multimedia technology to schools as elaborated earlier, is envisioned as a tool that would pave the way towards facilitating innovations particularly in integrating and developing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing which are crucial skills in language learning. After all, Multimedia tools include computer-generated sound, graphics, and animation, along with sound and visual forms (Forcier & Descy, 2002) and exploited purposefully, enriches a computer assisted learning environment through interactive learning (Neo and Neo, 2002).<br />
Indeed it could be said that multimedia technology constitutes a powerful tool which enables integration, convenience and durability. Suffice to state, multimedia technology enables approaches and innovations in language instruction and learning that were never before imagined. But of course the very presence of multimedia technology in and by itself does not ensure pedagogical innovations with a click of a mouse (Murray and Barnes, 1998; McMeniman & Evans, 2003). Galligan (1995) asserts the teacher factor as being "critical to the effective use of computers for learning". At the end of the day it is the teacher who "remains the primary director of learning" (Murray and Barnes, 1998: 251).<br />
<h3>Teachers and Multimedia</h3>Although much hardware and funds have been poured into schools along with assertions of the centrality of teachers' roles, these have left much to be desired. In the case of ESL teachers, McCarthy, (1999) laments that very little is actually happening with computers, that where it is happening it often does so spasmodically or peripherally, and that the 'wonder' of computer assisted language learning (CALL) is so often met with indifference, scepticism or scorn. Even where training is provided in most schools, this has been observed as being crash programmes honing into computer literacy at the expense of integrating technology with pedagogy (UNESCO, 2005).<br />
Research studies have indicated that while there have been efforts by governments to support the utilisation of multimedia technology in schools, teachers have not been able to tap the purported potentials. In the case of Korea, such efforts have been delayed due to a lack of computer-trained teachers. The research concluded that a careful examination has to be made into whether 'computer-related trainings are provided with frequency and equality to teachers who are enthusiastic about computer use.' (Miheon, 1996: 204).<br />
Elsewhere, McMeniman & Evans (2003) acknowledge the need to have skilled teachers who are able to use the multimedia technology effectively in the classroom to enable improvements in language teaching and learning so as to improve students' target language proficiency. The research concludes that in order for CALL to be a powerful instructional tool, teachers need to be well trained to utilize the technology in the classroom (McMeniman & Evans, 2003). In a case study of a Malaysian context, Norhayati Abd. Mukti (2000) highlighted the importance of teachers having adequate knowledge about the computer and the use in teaching and learning in order to utilise the computer as an effective instructional tool.<br />
<h3>Teachers' Attitudes</h3>Indeed, teachers play a pivotal role in the utilisation of computer technology in the classrooms. Hence, there is a need to study this teacher factor. And in doing so, one area that needs to be looked at pertains to teachers' attitudes. Woodrow (1991) observes that the success of computer technology programmes depends on the attitudes of teachers. Teachers' attitudes towards multimedia technology influences students’ attitude towards technology (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 1998). Further, Akbaba & Kurubacak (1998) argued that unless we identify teacher's attitude towards multimedia technology, we cannot expect the teachers to effectively support the integration of technology into the curriculum.<br />
In defining the term attitude, this study considers it as a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Further, attitude can be categorised into the cognitive, the behavioural and the affective (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Jones and Clarke, 1994). The cognitive category represents the users’ thinking on the object being evaluated. This denotes the opinions of what they consider advantages/disadvantages in utilising multimedia technology and their fear (mentally) of the challenges they may face in the process. The affective category deals with feelings or emotions with regards to the use of the computer. It involves the anxieties that users experience when using the technology. The behavioural category is concerned with the people's action towards the attitude object. This concerns what the users are able to do or not do with the technology at their disposal.<br />
<h3>Teachers' Knowledge</h3>In order to investigate the attitudes of teachers, it is imperative too that the teachers' knowledge in utilising technology be also identified. In this respect, knowledge of the various approaches in which computer technology can be utilised. At its most fundamental, computer technology can be utilised in three ways. These are as a tutor, tool and tutee (Taylor, 1980 in Paul, 1999).<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Computer as a Tutor</h3>As a tutor, computer technology is utilised as a system that presents the subject to which the learners will respond and provides a learning environment which is controlled (Hsu et al, 2000). This involves the user being presented/presenting and guided by the technology to complete a particular task in a regimented and sequenced approach. At this level, the user in this case, the teachers concerned, posses knowledge which is at a basic or elementary level. They are able to type, design and produce or reproduce worksheets using Microsoft word. Such task requires that they be familiar with basic operations of the software i.e. knowing how to save and print their work. Besides that, these teachers are able to surf the World Wide Web in search of information using particular search engines. They are also able to utilise the Form One English language multimedia courseware for purposes. These teachers have attended the formal training sessions via the initiatives of the MoE and its selected agencies and know how to operate the courseware. After training, they return to their respective schools to conduct in-house training on how to use the courseware and its' basic operation, to all the teachers teaching Form One English. In addition to these, they also posses personal interest in certain subjects other than English and may purchase CD Rom on general information from the market to be used in the classroom. Suffice to say at this point, that their utilisation of the multimedia technology is at a level where they present information in a lock-step well-ordered approach which reflects a behaviourist trait in utilising the computer.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Computer as a Tool</h3>In the tool category, the computer is exploited “to support or facilitate a variety of instructional activities” (Chen et al, 2000:185). This requires the user to utilize the presentation package for classroom teaching by using the software like Microsoft Power Point, Excel and Word (Taylor, 1980 in Paul, 1999). In doing so, the user utilises the software tools in the computer and in the process needs to learn how to use the software effectively in order to create a good presentation. This involves the teachers concerned as having made the particular efforts required, to learn and acquire the knowledge of using the presentation package either through self-study or via formal training at an institution which offers courses in using the software. In order to achieve such a level, these teachers would have the knowledge of inserting pictures and linking pages to present graphics using the Microsoft Word package. The same applies for the use of the Microsoft Power Point with the additions of colours, colour tones, animations and special effects. When it comes to the use of Microsoft Excel, teachers who use this would have the knowledge of presenting information in statistical figures and graphs. Their knowledge of using the Microsoft Front Page would enable them to create and upload presentations on the website. These teachers too would be involved designing and creating graphic illustrations and thus have the knowledge of using particular designing tools to achieve this end. At this point, the knowledge these teachers possess can be classified as a step higher than the previous elementary level. This utilisation of the computer in this respect can be considered as being at a intermediate level. Teachers have the knowledge to utilise the computer as a tool to enhance instructional performance.<br />
</div><h3>Computer as a Tutee</h3>As for the computer as a tutee, this refers to users, in this case teachers, who are able to create programme(s) using computer programming language such as LOGO, Java Script etc., and have control over the usage of the computer (Taylor, 1980 in Paul, 1999). In short the user learns as well as teaches the computer in the process of creation. In this respect, the user has to put in more effort to learn and master the computer language. At this particular point, the teachers concerned have made increased efforts to learn and acquire the knowledge. These have been achieved through rigorous formal training in an institution of higher learning or via tremendous amount of self-learning to acquire the highly skilled knowledge. As this level suggests, these teachers posses the knowledge in installing and managing computer hardware and software. They are also able to carry out trouble shooting and repair works on computers to address technical faults and detect viruses. Thus, at this particular stage these teachers can be considered as advanced users of the technology and would in turn apply such knowledge level in their instructional efforts.<br />
<h3>Teachers and Multimedia: Attitudes and Knowledge</h3>These three levels of knowledge and use and their corresponding requirements are translated as a guide in which these teachers' level of knowledge will be assessed. This is important in investigating these teachers' attitudes towards multimedia technology in correlation to their background knowledge. With these in mind this particular case study intends to investigate the correlations between the English Language Teachers’attitude toward multimedia technology and their background knowledge in using multimedia technology.<br />
This will operate on the following assumptions i. English Language Teachers with positive attitudes towards multimedia technology are at an intermediate or advanced level of knowledge in multimedia technology. ii. English Language Teachers with low or negative attitudes towards multimedia technology are at the most basic level of knowledge in multimedia technology.<br />
<h3>The Study</h3>The study is a cross-sectional study using a quantitative and qualitative descriptive survey questionnaire as an instrument to elicit the participants’response. The descriptive quantitative and qualitative survey will provide the study with the necessary data to analyse the English language teachers' attitudes towards using multimedia technology.<br />
Data was obtained using the Likert scale based questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of three sections. The first section was to determine the teachers’background level of knowledge in using multimedia technology. In this section, the 5 point Likert Scale used has a minimum score of 15 and a maximum score of 75. There are 15 statements related to background knowledge. Teachers with a low level of knowledge in using Multimedia Technology will have a score of 15 to 24. Scores at an average level are between 25 to 50. Teachers with a high level of knowledge in using Multimedia Technology will fall between the scores of 51 to 75. (see Table 1)<br />
<center> <table><tbody>
<tr> <td><b>Score</b></td> <td><b>Level of Knowledge</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>15 to 24</td> <td>Low or elementary level</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>25 to 50</td> <td>Average or intermediate level</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>51 to 75</td> <td>High or advanced level</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>Table 1: <span class="italic">Scores in Level of Knowledge in Using Multimedia Technology</span><br />
</center> The second section was to determine their attitudes towards multimedia technology. There are 15 items in this section. The items are divided into 3 categories, which are cognitive, affective and behavioural. The minimum point score for this section is 15, while the highest score for this section is 75. Therefore, the neutral score for this section is 45. Scores that fall below this point are scores for negative attitude, while scores that are above 45 are positive attitudes. (see Table 2)<br />
<center> <table><tbody>
<tr> <td><b>Score</b></td> <td><b>Level of Attitude</b></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>15 to 44</td> <td>Negative attitude</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>45</td> <td>Neutral</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>46 to 75</td> <td>Positive attitude</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>Table 2: <span class="italic">Score for Level of Attitude</span><br />
</center> The last section consists of a list of open ended questions aimed at eliciting their opinions on the importance of training in using multimedia technology. Three questions are posed requiring respondents to write their answers in the spaces provided. The questions are as follows: <br />
<ul><li>OPQ1: How would you characterize your computer training? </li>
<li>OPQ2: Do you think that you would benefit from more training? How? </li>
<li>OPQ3: How often do you use the computer in the classroom? </li>
</ul>The instrument designed is based on Roberson et al (1995) list of items of computer attitudes. Originally, Robertson et al (1995) set out to investigate gender differences, students and staff differences in attitude towards using computers in the school. The instrument they used to measure the attitude of the students and staff is used as a guide here for developing the attitude survey for the Form One English language teachers for this research. This instrument is proximate to the items being used which is relevant to the attitude statements of the teachers being measured in the questionnaire for this study. These are classified into behavioural, cognitive and affective items of attitude measurement.<br />
<div class="chapter"> <h3>The Subjects</h3>A total of 50 secondary school English Language teachers teaching at the Form One level participated in this study. They were identified at random from 20 schools. The method used for random selection of the sample is called the Criterion-based sampling (LeCompte & Preissle 1993: 98), where the researcher sets the criteria for the type of characteristic that will be accepted into the case study. In the typical-case selection (LeCompte & Preissle 1993: 75), the researcher sets the profile and attributes of the sample of respondents who will be selected for the study and then sets out to seek the sample that fits the description of the criteria. For this study the characteristic of the type of respondents who were accepted for the study are: <br />
<ul><li>Form One English language teachers </li>
<li>Utilising the computer notebook or laptop, computer desktop, the Form One English language multimedia CD-ROM and the portable projector provided by the government </li>
<li>Teaching in a secondary school </li>
</ul></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Data Analysis</h3>The data collected was tallied into frequency counts. Each section of the questionnaire has a total value of 75 marks for the highest score (highly skilled or positive attitude) and 5 marks for the lowest score (low skilled or negative attitude).<br />
Each individual score was complied into a frequency score, which was displayed in the form of a mathematical percentage. This was to enable the study to identify the culmination and frequency of scores in the calculations within the designated categories such as either the elementary level, intermediate and advanced levels in the background knowledge of the teachers using the Multimedia Technology; and the classification of what constitute as 'positive' or 'negative' attitude in the scores.<br />
The data of the two section were then further analysed and assigned into x and y axis to identify whether there is any correlation between the two independent variables. The r correlation coeffiency was calculated based on the Pearson's correlation coeffiency formula to investigate if the correlation is positive or negative.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>The Findings</h3><h4>Teachers' Knowledge</h4>14% of the English language teachers teaching Form One classes utilising Multimedia Technology scored a low or below average in their level of knowledge in Multimedia Technology. 48% of these teachers reported an average level of knowledge in using multimedia technology. 38% of these respondents recorded an above average or high score of knowledge in Multimedia Technology.<br />
<h4>Teachers' Attitude</h4>A total of 16% of the respondents indicated negative attitudes towards Multimedia Technology. 4% of the respondents reported neutral attitudes, while the remaining 80% expressed positive attitudes towards Multimedia Technology.<br />
Correlations between Form One English language teachers' knowledge and their attitudes towards Multimedia Technology in the classroom.<br />
As mentioned earlier, the calculation of the data for the correlation study is based on the formula called Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation. In mathematical and statistical term this is represented by the symbol - <b>r</b>. The calculation will be made from two approaches:<br />
<br />
<div align="center"><img border="0" height="321" src="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/ramanair_sagat_fig1.jpg" width="313" /><br />
</div><center><i>Fig. 1: Two approaches for the calculations</i></center> The rationale for using these two approaches in calculation is to ensure that the results from the <b>r</b> calculated are the same when using the two approaches, which is actually two different angle of observing the same data for the correlation study<br />
The data analysis for the English language teachers’ background is represented by the symbol‘<b>x</b>’; while the data for the English language teachers’ attitude towards multimedia technology is represented by the symbol‘<b>y</b>’.<br />
The symbol <b>n</b> indicates the number of respondents and the symbol <b>s</b> indicates the denominator. The calculations of <b>r</b> from the deviation score are derived from the following formula:<br />
<br />
<div align="center"><img border="0" height="504" src="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/ramanair_sagat_fig2.jpg" width="384" /><br />
<i>Fig 2: <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12pt;">The calculations of r from the deviation score</span></i> </div>Calculations of r from the Raw Scores. The calculations of <b>r</b> from the Raw Scores are based on the following formula: <br />
<div align="center"><img border="0" height="402" src="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/ramanair_sagat_fig3.jpg" width="373" /><br />
<i>Fig 3: <span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12pt;">The calculations of <i>r </i>from the Raw Scores</span></i> </div>The positive score of <b>r</b> = +0.8034407 indicates that there is a positive correlation between these English language teachers’ knowledge in Multimedia Technology and their attitudes towards Multimedia Technology in the Form One English language classroom. The graph below illustrates this correlation accordingly:<br />
<center><img border="0" height="315" src="http://callej.org/journal/8-2/ramanair_sagat_fig4.JPG" width="536" /><br />
Figure 4: <i>English language teachers’knowledge in multimedia technology</i></center> <h4>Open-ended Questions</h4>As mentioned earlier, three open ended questions were posed at the end of the questionnaire. These were: <br />
<ul><li>OPQ1: How would you characterize your computer training? </li>
<li>OPQ2: Do you think that you would benefit from more training? How? </li>
<li>OPQ3: How often do you use the computer in the classroom? </li>
</ul>18% of teachers considered their computer training to be at a poor level. This is reflected in the responses that were remarked as poor, no training, outdated, not good, below average, below par. 24% characterised their computer training as being average, moderate, satisfactory. The remaining 58% described their computer training as good, ok, excellent, very good, extremely good.<br />
When enquired whether they would benefit from more training, almost all teachers (92%) saw the significance of training. Among the reasons cited were as an improvement of existing skills, enhancement of knowledge and building of confidence in using multimedia technology in the classroom. The remaining respondents (8%) however were unsure whether they would benefit from more training.<br />
Overall most of these teachers were regular computer users especially the laptops provided by the government in their Form One classes. 4% recorded non use of the computer at all.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Discussion</h3>The data obtained and analysed revealed that most of these Form One English language teachers posses knowledge of multimedia technology use that range from average to above average. Such encouraging response of 86% may be largely attributed to their attainment of such knowledge through formal training and exposure or via self-taught. Also, because the introduction of multimedia technology in schools is still at its infancy, these teachers may find such innovations, interesting. Hence, they would be keen to explore and try out the tools available at their disposable.<br />
Judging from their responses to the open ended question on the benefits of training and reasons for this, almost all these teachers responded positively to this. They were aware of the significance in training in order to enhance their skills, knowledge and confidence. Perhaps they do realise the need to constantly upgrade themselves beyond their present level. Notably, 82% described their computer training at a range from average to good.. As they were sentient of their training level they saw the need and significance for more training. And as such, they were receptive with regards to trying out the multimedia tools available. Such developments both from the aspects of knowledge levels that are encouraging and training which is viewed with optimism, translate to a positive indication in attitudes which stand at 80%.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>The Assumptions</h3>English Language Teachers with positive attitudes towards multimedia technology are at an intermediate or advanced level of knowledge in multimedia technology.<br />
In total, 80% of the sample population have a positive attitude towards using multimedia technology. Conversely, 86% of these English language teachers using multimedia technology have an average or above average level of knowledge of using computers in the classroom. Despite the high level of knowledge in using multimedia technology, the positive attitude towards using multimedia technology is lower by 6%. Therefore, it could be said that the stated assumption is largely true in this case, given the correlation which is negligible. Although these teachers are at a higher level in terms of knowledge of multimedia, their attitudes towards the technology in terms of the cognitive, affective and behavioural largely correlates but records a minor difference. Perhaps such a negligible difference could be attributed to the these teachers’ confidence in exploiting the technology for teaching and learning purposes. While they may possess a higher level of knowledge with regards to using the technology, their attitudes towards its use may be slightly affected by their confidence in integrating it with their lessons. Perhaps they lack the necessary support and encouragement towards that end, as observed by Akbaba & Kurubacak (1998). After all, they do realise the need for more training as 90% of the total respondents do view training as an avenue for improvement and confidence building.<br />
Nevertheless, it could be concluded that English Language Teachers with positive attitudes towards using multimedia technology in the Form One classroom have a higher level of knowledge in using multimedia technology and this knowledge is at an intermediate or advanced level.<br />
English Language Teachers with low or negative attitudes towards multimedia technology are at the most basic level of knowledge in multimedia technology.<br />
Of the 50 respondents who participated in the study, a total of 16% recorded negative attitudes towards multimedia technology based on the score value of the level of attitude. As for the level of background knowledge, 14% of these respondents are classified in the low or elementary level. There appears to be a 2% difference in the correlation with a higher number of respondents indicating a negative attitude as compared to the level of background knowledge which is slightly lower. It could be concluded in this respect that the stated assumption is indeed true.<br />
Such low level of background knowledge although negligible may be attributed to a lack in computer training which contributes to obstacles in the active use of computer in the school for instructional purposes (Miheon, 1996). As observed earlier, a total of 18% of these respondents acknowledged that their computer training levels were poor. Further, nearly half of this (8%) were unsure as to the significance of training in improving themselves.<br />
As such, it is no wonder that this population of teachers possess a low or negative attitude towards using multimedia technology in their classrooms. Because of the poor level of training cited, these teachers may not want to use the technology at their disposal as they simply do not know how to exploit it for a possible fear that they may look foolish. As such, they may even resent the use of the technology and develop negative attitudes towards its use. Moreover, they are unable to see training as bearing any significance. As a result, possibilities of negative perception towards multimedia technology is inevitable. Consequently, the use of multimedia technology is limited among these teachers who loose out in experiencing the purported usefulness of the technology in the classroom (Yuen and Ma, 2001). And because their use of the technology is low to the possible point of non use, they would not take the opportunity to advance their knowledge of the technology beyond what has been exposed to them and remain at low levels of attitudes.<br />
Suffice to state, teachers with low or negative attitudes towards using multimedia technology in the Form One classroom only possess the most basic knowledge of using multimedia technology.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Conclusion</h3>Merely introducing multimedia technology into the ESL classroom does not guarantee the expected innovations in learning. While software and hardware may be in place, the 'humanware' (Warschauer and Meskill, 2000) must be in position too. Teachers play an essential role in this respect. This necessitates that they be receptive in their attitudes to the technology. In this case, a positive attitude indicates a higher level of knowledge and vice versa. But a possibility that the higher level of knowledge in technology use contributes to having positive attitudes cannot be ruled out as well. Hence, both the components of attitude and knowledge are complimentary. In this respect, it is imperative that in introducing and gradually integrating multimedia technology in the English Language Classroom, a consideration of teachers' attitudes and knowledge is essential to ensure that the CALL enterprise will achieve the potentials it deserves. And this requires time, concentration and support, involving long term viable efforts. After all, Rome was not built in a day.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Author</h3><b>Joseph Ramanair</b> is a lecturer at the Centre For Language Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak in East Malaysia. He is involved in teacher training for both pre-service and in-service programmes. His research interests are in computer assisted language learning and print media journalism.<br />
<b>Gerald Uyu Sagat</b> is is an ESL teacher at a local government secondary school in Sarawak, Malaysia.<br />
</div><div class="reference"> <h3>References</h3><ul><li>Akbaba, S & Kurubacak, G. (1998). Teachers' Attitudes Towards Technology. Retrieved September 29, 2003 from <a href="http://wrvw.coe.uh.edu/insite/elec-pub/FIlML1998/re-akba-htni/" target="blank">http://wrvw.coe.uh.edu/insite/elec-pub/FIlML1998/re-akba-htni</a> </li>
<li>Chen, D-T, Hsu, J.J.F and Hung, D. (2000). Learning theories and IT: the computer as a tool, in Williams, D. (2000). (ed.) <i>Integrating technology into teaching and learning: Concepts and applications: An Asia-Pacific perspective</i>. Jurong, Singapore: Prentice. </li>
<li>Eagly, A.H. & Chaiken, S. (1993). <i>The psychology of attitudes</i>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. </li>
<li>Forcier, R.C. & Descy, D.E. (2002). <i>The computer as an educational tool: Productivity and problem solving</i>. London: Pearson. </li>
<li>Galligan, J.(1995). Computers and Pedagogy. Paper presented to the Australian Computers in Education Conference, Perth, Western Australia. Retrieved July 19, 2005, from <a href="http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/CP/REFS/galligan.htm" target="blank">http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/CP/REFS/galligan.htm</a> </li>
<li>Hsu, J.J.F., Chen, D-T, and Hung, D. (2000). Learning theories and IT: the computer as a tutor, in Williams, D. (2000) (ed.) <i>Integrating technology into teaching and learning: Concepts and applications: An Asia-Pacific perspective</i>. Jurong, Singapore: Prentice. </li>
<li>Intel. (2004). Malaysia’s Ministry of Education improves teacher productivity and enhances learning with IntelR CentrinoTM mobile technology. Retrieved February 20, 2005, from <a href="http://www.intel.com/business/casestudies/malaysia_moe.pdf." target="blank">http://www.intel.com/business/casestudies/malaysia_moe.pdf.</a> </li>
<li>Jones T. and Clark V.A., (1994). A computer attitude scale for secondary students. <i>Computers in education</i>, 22, 315-318. </li>
<li>Lockard, J., Abrams, P.D. & Many, W.A. (1993). Microcomputers for twenty first century educators. 3rd ed. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. </li>
<li>McCarthy, B. (1999). Integration: the sine qua non of CALL, <i>CALL-EJ Online</i>, 1(2). Retrieved July 19, 2005, from <a href="http://www.ict4lt.org/en/McCarthy.htm" target="blank">http://www.ict4lt.org/en/McCarthy.htm</a> </li>
<li>McMeniman, M & Evans, R. (1998). CALL through the eyes of teachers and learners of Asian languages: Panacea or business as usual? <i>On-CALL</i>, 12(1). Retrieved October 10, 2005 from <a href="http://www.cltr.uq.edu.au/oncall/mcmen121.html" target="blank">http://www.cltr.uq.edu.au/oncall/mcmen121.html</a> </li>
<li>Miheon, Jo. (1996). Computer use in Korean schools: Instruction and administration. <i>Computer education</i>, 26, 197-205. </li>
<li>Mimos (2002). Sesi Latihan Untuk Program Pembelajaran Sains Dan Matematik Dalam Bahasa Inggeris. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Inovatif Sejagat Sdn. Bhd. </li>
<li>Murray, L and Barnes, A. (1998). Beyond the“wow”factor-evaluating multimedia language learning software from a pedagogical viewpoint. <i>System</i>, 26, 249-299. </li>
<li>Neo, M. and Neo, K.T.K. (2002). Building a constructivist learning environment using a multimedia design project ? a Malaysian experience. <i>Journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia</i>, 11(2), 141-153. </li>
<li>Norhayati Abd. Mukti (2000). Computer technology in Malaysia: Teachers’background characteristics, attitudes and concerns. <i>The electronic journal on information systems in developing countrieshttp://www.ejisdc.or/</i> </li>
<li><i>Paul, J.R.M. (1999). Empowering teachers to use computers effectively across the curriculum. Millennium Minds Conference. Cape Town, South Africa.</i> </li>
<li><i>Robertson, S.I., Calder, J.,Fung, P. Jones, A. and O’Shea, T. (1995). Computer attitude in an English secondary school. Computers in education, 24, 73-81.</i> </li>
<li><i>Taylor, R.P. (Ed.) (1980). The computer in the classroom: Tutor, tool, tutee. New York: Teachers College Press.</i> </li>
<li><i>UNESCO (2005). Regional guidelines for teacher development for pedagogy-technology integration. UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok, Thailand.</i> </li>
<li><i>Warschauer, M., & Meskill, C. (2000). Technology and second language learning. In J. Rosenthal (Ed.), Handbook of undergraduate second language education (pp. 303-318). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Retrieved July 11, 2005 from <a href="http://www.gse.uci.edu/faculty/markw/tslt.html" target="blank">http://www.gse.uci.edu/faculty/markw/tslt.html</a></i> </li>
<li><i>Yuen H.K. and Ma, W.K. (2001). Teachers' computer attitudes: Factors influencing the instructional use of computers. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers in Education, Korea, 1, 501-508.</i></li>
</ul><div><i>source: http://callej.org/</i></div><ul><li> <div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2007- Joseph Ramanair and Gerald Uyu Sagat & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X)</div></li>
</ul></div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-23479867310911654112011-12-03T18:02:00.000-08:002011-12-03T18:02:01.057-08:00Tutoring Translation Skills: Reflections on a Computer-Managed Teaching-Learning-Research Triangle<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Tutoring Translation Skills: Reflections on a Computer-Managed Teaching-Learning-Research Triangle </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="outline"><div class="journal"><ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X </li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online </li>
<li>Vol. 7, No. 2, January 2006</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"><h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"><ul><li>Brian McCarthy </li>
<li><a href="mailto:brianm@uow.edu.au">brianm@uow.edu.au</a> </li>
<li>University of Wollongong, Australia </li>
</ul></div><div class="article"><div class="chapter">This article presents a brief expose of an online activity designed to help foreign language students develop proficiency as translators by examining and evaluating sets of alternative translations; reflections on the place and nature of translation in a university language course and on the concept of 'errors' in translation; and proposals for use of the site as a tool for research into the teaching of translation and the acquisition of translating skills. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>The 'Translator Choice' Site</h3>The 'Translator Choice' site (McCarthy 2003, 2004a) was developed as a means of delivering what is, from the point of view of the user, the simplest of exercises: the presentation of successive segments of a passage in the source language each accompanied by a set of 5 student-generated translations of varying accuracy displayed in random order. Students are required to either select the most accurate translation (Figure 1a) or rank the translations in order of accuracy (Figures 2a, 2b). A scoring system is applied based on the degree of discrepancy between what the student rates as accurate and the relative accuracy of each variant as determined by the instructor during the creation of the activity. Each activity can be administered in Practice or Test mode. In the Practice mode of the Select One activity, students are free to explore a bank of feedback providing a detailed linguistic explanation of the deficiencies of each alternative translation (Figure 3). <br />
<div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image001.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 1: Sample work screen of the Select One activity</span> </div><div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image002.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 2a: Sample work screen of the Rank the Translations activity </span> </div><div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image003.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 2b: Sample work screen of student ranking and recommended ranking in Rank the Translations activity </span> </div><div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image004.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 3: Example of feedback in the Select One activity </span> </div>In some ways the underlying idea is not new. A number of traditional activities encourage students to reflect on the relative merits of various translations. The most common is to return graded but minimally annotated student translations accompanied by a teacher-generated 'fair copy'. This approach leaves the decision on whether to reflect, and the nature and extent of any reflection, entirely in the hands of the student. A second is to build a class or lecture around commentary and discussion of a professionally produced translation, or of a translation produced by an external agent (e.g. machine translation). Although likely to prove intellectually stimulating, any exercise based on discussion of a translation produced by a fellow student would be highly questionable on ethical grounds and potentially threatening to the students, who would be left wondering whether one of their own translations might in turn be subjected to critical scrutiny of another generation of learners. A third possible approach is to return graded translations in class and allow free and open discussion of any point students may care to raise. Most teachers do not possess the skills in diplomacy, riot control or simultaneous multi-directional counselling to manage this process while providing reasoned and authoritative explanations of linguistic principles or stylistic nuance to as many or as few students as may be interested. Because of the time involved, it is simply not possible to provide each student with the ideal service of a full written or oral explanation of each problematic point in each translation they submit. Neither is it possible to know how much explanation is actually required by different individuals. By allowing the development of a site such as 'Translator Choice', contemporary ICT has nevertheless brought us a lot closer to that ideal. Full details of the rationale, design and development of the site have been provided in earlier articles (McCarthy 2003, 2004b), so will not be repeated here. However, some key aspects to mention are: <br />
<ul><li>The activity is meant to complement, not replace, existing practices in teaching translation. It is part of the formal assessment for each second and third-year French language subject. </li>
<li>There are currently 50 passages (French-to-English), of varying degrees of difficulty, stored on the site. </li>
<li>The translation variants are anonymous data distilled from an extensive corpus generated by an earlier cohort of foreign-language students. They present expressions and constructions produced by actual students, but can never combine to reproduce the translation of any individual. </li>
<li>The process of ranking translations requires students to take account not only of the number of errors or problems in each translation variant, but to attribute a weighting to their collective impact on the quality of that translation in relation to the alternatives. </li>
<li>No programming skills are required to enter data on the site. </li>
<li>Once it is in electronic form, economies of scale justify the time and effort involved in preparing the translation variants and feedback. Each passage can be used for a variety of classes or individuals in different institutions over many years, and the user's geographical location is virtually irrelevant. </li>
<li>Regular use of classroom or take-home on-paper equivalents of the activity would be too complicated and too labour-intensive to be justifiable without the aid of ICT. </li>
<li>Once the passages for a particular group have been organised and their calendar of availability set at the beginning of the semester, no further instructor intervention is required until the end-of-session downloading of grades. </li>
<li>Third-year students spend on average 4 hours completing the schedule of 'Translator Choice' activities online each semester. </li>
<li>The site gathers statistical data on scores for passages and for individual users or groups of users. It also tracks the choices made by students and the time taken. </li>
</ul></div><div class="chapter"><h3>Introspective</h3>The design and construction of this inductive learning activity became in turn a discovery learning activity for the developer. It consistently prompted reflection on the place and nature of translation in contemporary foreign language courses, the role of the teacher, and the notions of relative accuracy and straightforward error in translation. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>The place of translation in past and present foreign language course</h3>Translation was closely associated with the older generation's endeavours to learn a foreign language. First steps in the study of French in a comprehensive state secondary school in Australia in the late 1950s, for example, were supported by grammar-translation textbooks which were the largely unquestioned standard in an era when few of the country's foreign language teachers had ever met a French native, let alone conversed with one or travelled to France. It was an environment in which terms such as audio-lingual, audio-visual, functional, communicative, or special purposes had yet to be associated with notions of language teaching or incorporated into syllabuses or teaching approaches. For French, as for Latin, proof of mastery of vocabulary and grammar in the junior years was demonstrated by the ability to translate carefully-engineered phrases and sentences from English into the foreign language. At higher levels of secondary education these sentences had been strung together to form cohesive passages. <br />
The language component of French studies at university commonly took the form of 'proses' (translation into French of passages of authentic English, usually drawn from novels), dictations, 'explication de texte', conversation classes and an introduction to phonetics. The translation of passages from French into English ('unseens') was generally considered by students to be the softer option, as it was a relatively passive activity, requiring recognition rather than production of the foreign-language words, syntax and constructions, and an exercise in which first-language skills played a much greater role in determining the quality of the end result. Graduates of this now superseded methodology may not have been able function comfortably in everyday conversation in France, but they did emerge with a reasonable grasp what was required to produce a grammatically and stylistically accurate equivalent of an L1 passage in L2, at least for the purposes of passing a university language examination. Any subsequent contact with authentic French, such as an extended stay in France, provided linguistic exposure and cultural perceptions that could only improve the output. <br />
University students of French in present-day Australia have typically not had the benefit of five or six years of foreign language study at secondary school. But they do have the opportunity to interact with French exchange students on their own campus, and some of them may have already spent time touring or living in France or a French-speaking country. They have generally not had the benefit of long-term training in comparing and contrasting two language systems. And in any case, the activity of translation now occupies quite a different position in foreign-language courses. <br />
It may not be anathema, as it was in the eyes of some of the more purist teachers of the structuro-global audio-visual era of the mid-seventies, but most contemporary beginner courses strive to develop communicative skills primarily by moving from comprehension of authentic or semi-authentic audio or video dialogues to independent re-use of a designated set of structures by the learners. Students and teachers commonly resort to translation at different points of the process, but it is rarely presented as a routine, formal, assessable activity. However, in a world where foreign language study is undertaken for pragmatic rather than purely academic reasons, students are eager to be able to demonstrate to potential employers that they possess a high degree of proficiency in translating in addition to their general communication skills in the foreign language. <br />
If formal translation activities are introduced only at the intermediate or advanced level after as little as two semesters of foreign language studies, students are likely to discover that their deficiencies in that area are just as great as the deficiencies in real-life spoken communication were in the foreign language skills of students of an earlier generation. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Peculiarities of translation in the context of a foreign-language course</h3>Because its texts, contexts, objectives, agents and audiences can be so diverse, it is highly improbable that the word 'translation' will ever be defined in anything but the broadest terms. Literary, artistic, journalistic, machine, technical and summary translation are each governed by a different set of parameters. They have in common the rendering of meaning in another language. The end result of the deconstruction, transfer and reconstitution of meaning can in each case be judged on its merits and defects, which are often as much an impression in the eye of the beholder as demonstrable and absolute linguistic truths. Several parameters combine to make university translation assignments a unique genre. They include the reason for undertaking the translation, its subjection to formal assessment, and the availability to the translator of one or more parallel translations. <br />
<span class="u">Purpose</span>. The primary reason for undertaking the translation of a given passage is that it has been set as an assessable task in a foreign language course. The translator is conscious of the fact that the assignment is part of a broader learning process. The passage was chosen by the teacher rather than the student, and for reasons best known to the teacher: e.g. to give the student exposure to a particular style or register of language, or because it provides the student with an appropriate linguistic challenge. And the translation is being done for an audience of one: the teacher-assessor. This does not mean that the student is not endeavouring to produce a translation that would convey the meaning of the original document fully and accurately to a target-language audience, it is just that that audience remains a hypothetical one. <br />
<span class="u">Assessment</span>. It is not unusual for a translation to be subject to evaluation, particularly if it displays conspicuous flaws. Such assessment may take the form of anything from the complete layperson's 'You can tell that was translated!' or 'I wonder who translated that!' or 'What's that supposed to mean?' in relation to the set of instructions accompanying a household appliance produced in a foreign country, to formal editorial amendment of a document submitted for publication. But in the case of the student assignment, regardless of how vague or detailed the accompanying commentary may be, the piece of work will be awarded a numeric grade either as a measure of its quality in relation to an absolute standard or as a means of ranking it in relation to the efforts of other students. Issues surrounding the formulation and implementation of a consistent, formal, objective evaluation process will be discussed below. <br />
<span class="u">Linguistic impediment</span>. Any genuine foreign language student will by definition have only a partial grasp of one of the two languages involved in their translation exercise. In fact, one of the principal objectives of an L2-to-L1 translation assignment is often to determine whether the student has fully grasped the meaning of the original. In less controlled activities such as listening comprehension or conversation, where grasp of the big picture, or simply getting by and keeping communication going, are of primary importance, a student's failure to fully understand individual words and phrases, or to make appropriate connections between different elements of the discourse, can easily remain concealed - with potentially serious consequences. <br />
<span class="u">Comparison</span>. At some point or other, students completing a translation assignment will normally see one or more versions of the translation other than their own, either through informal collaboration with their peers or in the fair copy provided by the instructor. This provides them with a unique opportunity to put their own work in perspective and to learn to discriminate between an acceptable variant an inaccurate or incomplete translation. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>The Teacher's Position</h3>The purpose of the teacher in producing a fair copy of a translation passage set as an assignment is not the same as that of a translator employed to produce a translation of a novel or newspaper article or academic article for publication, even if both are the work of 'professionals' and the text generated might be the same in each case. The functions of the fair copy and the published translation are also different. Instead of being a freestanding text whose readership will in all probability neither need nor be in a position to compare it to the source-language text, the fair copy stands as a benchmark against which students can measure their efforts. The process of comparison reveals two things. The first is that the student's translation may be different from the fair copy at many points and yet not have elicited any comment. The implicit message to students is that just because something they have written is different from the fair copy doesn't mean it is unacceptable. This message may not always be detected, but it accounts for why the term 'fair copy' is used rather than 'answer'. The second is to provide an alternative translation for anything that might have been signalled as problematic, deficient or erroneous in the student's work. This can be a sensitive matter. It is very easy at this point for students to lose sight of the fact that their text is being evaluated not just as a piece of English, but on the extent to which it is a faithful rendering of the meaning of the source text. Offence at poorly reasoned or inadequately explained criticism is usually expressed by remarks in the vein of 'English is my mother tongue, I speak and understand it every bit as well as you, so what right do you have to say that what I've written is wrong?' </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Translation 'Mistakes'</h3>A key premise in establishing the 5 variants in any 'Translator Choice' activity is that there are quantifiable, objectively explainable differences that produce qualitative differences in a translation. The grading of student translations is based on such differences. Use of the term 'mistakes' or 'errors' in relation to translation is a sensitive issue, but, if marks are being deducted because of the assessor's preference of one linguistic form over another, then, regardless of the terminology, as far as the student who has lost the marks is concerned, they have made a mistake. Curiosity and professional responsibility compel the foreign-language teacher to explore how their position fits with that of mainstream professional translators. <br />
Aveling (2002:4) comments that 'surprisingly, the word 'mistakes' is not one that often enters into the contemporary theorisation of translation - outside language learning classrooms' and he remarks on the dearth of references to 'mistakes' or 'errors' in many contemporary books on translation. The discourse appears to favour terms such as equivalence, adequacy, accuracy, appropriateness, completeness, correspondence, exactness, fidelity, identity, nuance, phrasing, precision or usage, accompanied by some form of negation or qualification. This may be because, in many cases, experienced translators are writing on the subject for the benefit of their peers. A certain level of proficiency is assumed, and observations relate to the limitations imposed on the full transferability of meaning by differences in linguistic systems, cultural frameworks, audiences and artistic expression. Neither do errors appear to be a major preoccupation of courses in translation studies. In the course descriptions doctoral program in Multilingual communication at Barcelona's Universitat Pompeu Fabra, for example, where 8 of the 24 core subjects relate explicitly to translation, the term 'errors' features only once - in a methodological course on description, criticism and comparison of literary translation. <br />
It is interesting that Aveling made a special case of language learning classrooms. They are, however, not alone in the category. The list of exceptions could be expanded to include journalists and translator accreditation authorities. <br />
As commentators on society and current affairs, journalists not uncommonly report incidents of glaring errors. The following are two recent, high-profile cases: <br />
'Microsoft has also managed to upset women and entire countries. A Spanish-language version of Windows XP, destined for Latin American markets, asked users to select their gender between "not specified," "male" or "bitch," because of an unfortunate error in translation.' (Best, 2004). <br />
Pirated Potter book lacks magic <br />
A pirate version of the latest Harry Potter blockbuster has hit the streets of Venezuela, but the illegal book lacks the magic of the original and the translator apologises on virtually every page. <br />
The rogue Spanish edition of JK Rowling's Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is peppered with notes from a translator who had to leave phrases in English with a Spanish explanation "(Sorry, I didn't understand what this means)." <br />
A similar note on the same page tells readers: "(I didn't really understand what this phrase meant, so I paraphrased)". <br />
The translation may leave a lot to be desired but the books were selling like hot cakes in downtown Caracas, where street vendors were hawking it for around $US25. <br />
The book first appeared in English in June but an authorised translation into Spanish is not due to go on sale in Latin America for several months. <br />
"Whoever translated this wanted to beat the market ... but I don't think it quite catches the spirit of Ms Rowling's original," said Jose Farres of Editorial Oceano, which holds the rights for the book in Latin America. (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2003) <br />
Translator and interpreter accreditation bodies have a reputation for applying rigorous assessment criteria. The certification exam for the American Translators Association (ATA) (2002) 'is challenging with an overall pass rate below 20%'. The California-based provider of translation services 'Transcend' (2000) claims that, for California Court Interpreter certification "the 96% failure rate is evidence of the difficulty in mastering these skills'. And, although less forthcoming statistically than its US counterparts, the statement by the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters of Australia (NAATI) regarding pass rates in its Overseas Testing Guidelines (2004:11) that 'NAATI accreditation is the benchmark for entry into the profession of interpreting and translation in Australia. Consequently, the standards are high.' no doubt alludes to the application of a similarly stringent marking scheme. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Accountability</h3>The main objective of 'Translator Choice' is to provide students with a means of discovering the range of factors that can influence the quality of a translation. It is achieved by allowing them to explore various options and study the feedback generated by the instructor for each variant. The priority given to the provision of feedback places the creator of a 'Translator Choice' activity in a very different position from the ATA examiner, for example, who is operating in an environment where 'Before taking the exam, candidates must sign a statement acknowledging that they know they will be informed only of the final result of the exam, without comments from graders, and that the exam will remain the property of ATA.' (ATA 2002). It would be absurd to claim this level of confidentiality conceals some form of unjustifiable conduct on the part of the examiners. On the contrary, the ATA is one of the very rare bodies that spells out and illustrates its assessment criteria in great detail (see below), and there is every reason to assume that these criteria are applied fairly and professionally. But their objective is to assess, not to instruct. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Feedback</h3>With 'Translator Choice', the teacher's accountability is transparent: the student can read, and potentially challenge, the feedback provided for each translation deficiency. The likelihood of students absorbing this information in a detached manner is no doubt increased by the fact that they are never in the position of having to defend a translation that is the result of their personal effort or that has cost them money to submit. <br />
Because the activity was created as an intuitive response to a student need rather than for the sake of applying or testing a theory, the feedback to date has been totally ad hoc: whatever errors or inadequacies were thrown up by a student translation are explained to the best of the teachers ability and as objectively as possible. This has generated as many different explanations as there have been points of divergence from an acceptable rendering. Across the 50 passages they will run to thousands. Points eliciting comment can be as diverse as spelling mistakes (e.g. 'to procede' instead of ‘to proceed’), unidiomatic word-for-word translation (e.g. 'day fall' rather than 'nightfall' as a translation of 'la chute du jour'), inappropriate word choice for a given context (e.g. translating 'faire demi-tour' as 'to bang a u-turn' rather than 'to turn back' or 'to turn it around' in the context of handling a boat on a flooded river), and serious mistranslation arising from misinterpreted word forms and failure to understand a grammatical construction (e.g. translating 'C’est aussi fin qu’une grive' as 'It's the end of the thrush' instead of 'It's as tasty as thrush' with reference to the culinary potential of a hunted bird). <br />
The teacher progressively builds up a profile of the types of problems and their distribution as the corpus evolves. If the activity had been designed to be static, there would be no need to do anything more than provide a full bank of feedback, and perhaps refine it in the light of subsequent insights or in response to input from students as they work through the exercises. But if the site is to realise its potential to serve as a tool for understanding the obstacles to translation encountered by students and for improving the teaching of translation in foreign language classes, it is not enough to have a sea of data. For patterns and principles to emerge it is necessary to establish a taxonomy of errors. Thorough classification will provide a mechanism for tagging feedback items (provision has been made for this in the design), which will in turn allow an investigator to study the degree to which students are sensitive to that feature as they assess a translation. Findings can then be incorporated into awareness-raising classroom activities and practical exercises. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Classification of Errors</h3>If it is rare to find explicit references to 'translation errors', it is even rarer to find taxonomies of those errors. One area of translation in which the development of classification systems has been inevitable is that of Machine Translation (MT). As White (2003:211) states, 'Evaluation has always been central to the consciousness of those involved in the field of Machine Translation.' He points out that such evaluation frequently determines the direction of subsequent MT developments, it helps establish the cost-effectiveness of any investment in MT, and that it is hard to do because there is no single standard: 'The most obvious standard for MT, i.e., the "right" translation, is the very thing translation itself cannot provide.' (2003:213). It is, however, unlikely that with its need to satisfy the requirements of an array of stakeholders including monolingual or bilingual end-users, managers, developers, vendors and investors, MT evaluation will provide a suitable framework for the type of error analysis required to hone the translation skills of the foreign-language learner. It is also unlikely that such categories as those provided by the Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation (FEMTI) of the International Society for Language Engineering (ISLE) (2004) will provide the most useful starting point. The framework evaluates machine rather than human generated output. While there may be some overlap between the type of errors generated by students and those generated by a machine responding to comprehensive models and routines established by language engineers, they are likely to be viewed in different ways, given that in FEMTI (section 1.3.1) it is stated that 'the required translation quality is generally not high' and that, while fidelity is 'important', both style and wellformedness are rated as 'not a very important factor'. <br />
In the search for the criteria governing expert human assessment of human translation it is natural to turn to what is likely to be the strictest and most highly developed environment: the official accreditation of translators. In some cases, national accreditation authorities provide nothing in the way of assessment indicators. In others, such as NAATI (2004), broad categories are provided: 'Marks are deducted in translation tests for mistranslations, inappropriate vocabulary, incorrect punctuation, incorrect grammar, incorrect spelling, distortion of meaning, unidiomatic usage, stylistic infelicities'. <br />
The information on Exam Error Marking (revised 2002), reached from ATA's Certification page [<a href="http://www.atanet.org/bin/view.pl/12438.html" target="_blank">http://www.atanet.org/bin/view.pl/12438.html</a>], is refreshingly clear and thorough. It lists the following categories of errors: Incomplete passage, Illegible, Misunderstanding of original text, Mistranslation into target language, Addition or omission, Terminology, word choice, Register, Too freely translated, Too literal, word-for-word translation, False cognate, Indecision?gave more than one option, Inconsistency (same term translated differently), Ambiguity, Grammar, Syntax, Punctuation, Spelling, Accents and other diacritical marks, Case (upper/lower), Word Form, Usage, Style. Categories are accompanied by clear definitions, comments on how they are viewed by examiners, and helpful examples. There is inevitably a degree of generalisation in the descriptors, as they derive from and apply to many different language pairs. But they provide a very practical starting point for the classification of human translation errors. It is anticipated that when applied to the extensive corpus of French-to-English translation data currently embedded in 'Translator Choice', they will be able to be refined in such a way as to pNovide the teacher with a foundation on which to construct a valuable set of complementary instructional activities. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Research Avenues</h3>As it is used, the site gathers data on the choices made by students, the time taken and the score achieved. This data can be studied in relation to individuals or groups, and with reference to isolated segments or the passage as a whole. <br />
Figure 4 shows the overall statistics for a passage taken in Test mode by two groups of students, one doing it as a Select One activity, the other as Rank the Translations. It is possible to gather data for any combination of passages and groups. <br />
Research potential: Data for whole groups provide insights into the relative difficulty of passages; comparison of the difficulty of the Select One and Rank the Translations activities; amount of time dedicated to reflecting on translation outside of class. Data for an individual student's attempts over time would make it possible to discern any improvement in their perception of accuracy. <br />
<div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image005.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 4: Sample of passage statistics in 'Translator Choice' </span></div>Figure 5 is a display of data for the individual segments of a passage (in this case using Rank the Translations option), showing the total number of times it was completed by students, the average time taken, and the average score. <br />
Research potential: Time taken and average score give an indication of whether or not students are readily identifying particular sets of problems and processing them accurately. <br />
<div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image006.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 5: Sample of segment statistics in 'Translator Choice' </span></div>Figure 6 is a display of information relating to student choices in a Select One activity: it indicates the beginning of the segment in French; the beginning of each of the alternative translations in recommended order, followed by the number of times that translation was selected as most accurate by students, the total number of student attempts for the segment, the average time taken on that segment, and the average score. <br />
Research potential: Allows for the detection of 'blind spots' in students' filtering of information. And, if students who have consistently demonstrated a high level of perceptiveness in relation to most of the translations rank the variants differently, it allows the teacher to challenge the assumptions of the original ranking and admit that they may have been the result of personal preferences rather than differences that can be objectively established on linguistic grounds. <br />
<div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image007.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 6: Sample of 'Select One' student choices in 'Translator Choice' </span></div>Figure 7a and 7b show the most detailed level of data analysis for a Rank the Translations and a Select One activity respectively. In each case, once a full classification system has been developed for feedback, it will be converted to tags showing in detail the set of difficulties attached to each translation variant. Research potential: This configuration of data will make it possible to gain insights into the nature and number of errors or problems that students can make in their translations, establish some sort of ranking of their impact on overall accuracy, and determine which type of problems are most readily recognisable. In Practice activities (feedback is not accessible when activities are done as Tests), when the full bank of feedback becomes available for each passage, it will be possible to better understand when and how often students are exploring the linguistic explanations of problems they did recognise in their assessment of accuracy. Preparation of the feedback will allow language-specific refinement of the ATA classification system. <br />
<div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image008.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 7a: Sample of feedback-tagged student choices in 'Rank the Translations' activity </span></div><div class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-2/mccarthy_images/image009.gif" /> <span class="caption">Figure 7b: Sample of feedback-tagged student choices in 'Select One' activity </span></div></div><div class="chapter"><h3>Conclusions</h3>The conception and creation of any foreign-language teaching resource is an exercise in applied linguistics. It requires the teacher not only to understand the linguistic system of the foreign language, but to manage the material in such a way as to create a bridge that carries students forward in their understanding and mastery of the language. That the activity is enriching for the student is axiomatic. The process also provides the teacher with insights that can be reinvested into teaching and research. In the case of this project, those insights relate to the peculiar status and nature of translation when it is carried out in the context of a foreign-language classroom. Moreover, they point to the need to evaluate the translations produced by students against some standard, and to apply clear, consistent, and linguistically justifiable criteria in explaining any shortcomings. <br />
From the point of view of the student user, 'Translator Choice' is a simple interactive online exercise assessing the ability to recognise and evaluate the linguistic features of human translation. Its test activities are an integral component of their semester's work, and its practice activities provide the opportunity to access expert commentary on linguistic phenomena and distinctions that might otherwise elude the student. <br />
From the perspective of the teacher-designer, the site is multifaceted, serving as an editable and expandable manager of a valuable but otherwise unwieldy activity, and as a unique database. Analysis of the data gathered will make it possible to establish a functional taxonomy of the errors and inadequacies characteristic of the translations produced by foreign-language learners. It will also improve our understanding of such things as patterns of use, student progress, the relative difficulty of passages, and recognition or non-recognition of translation difficulties by students or teachers. This, in conjunction with informal feedback from students, will complete the teaching-learning-research triangle by improving existing teaching materials, shaping the development of new ones, and by creating a mechanism for the regulation of the contents of the site. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>References</h3><ul><li>American Translators Association (2002), A Guide to ATA Certification, <a href="http://www.atanet.org/bin/view.pl/12283.html" target="_blank">http://www.atanet.org/bin/view.pl/12283.html</a> </li>
<li>Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2003), Pirated Potter book lacks magic, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200309/s942459.htm">http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200309/s942459.htm</a> </li>
<li>Aveling, H. 'Mistakes' in Translation: A Functionalist Approach, paper prepared for the Third Workshop on “The Art of Translation”, London, 19-20 September 2002. <a href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/Literatures/satranslations/Aveling.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.soas.ac.uk/Literatures/satranslations/Aveling.pdf</a>. </li>
<li>Best, J. 'How eight pixels cost Microsoft millions', CNET News.com, Published: August 19, 2004, 11:36 AM PDT, <a href="http://news.com.com/How%20eight%20pixels%20cost%20Microsoft%20millions/2100-1014_3-5316664.html?tag=nefd.pop" target="_blank">http://news.com.com/How+eight+pixels+cost+Microsoft+millions/2100-1014_3-5316664.html?tag=nefd.pop</a> </li>
<li>International Society for Language Engineering (ISLE) (2004), Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation (FEMTI), <a href="http://www.issco.unige.ch/projects/isle/femti//" target="_blank">http://www.issco.unige.ch/projects/isle/femti/</a> </li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (2003) "Cognitive Skills in Translating: Creating a web-based learning activity", CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X), Vol. 5 No. 1, June 2003, <a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-1/mccarthy.html" target="_blank">http://www.tell.is.ritsumei.ac.jp/callejonline/journal/5-1/mccarthy.html</a> </li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (2004a) <span class="italic">Translator Choice: French</span>, University of Wollongong interactive learning site </li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (2004b) “'Translator Choice': a fresh use of the web in teaching translation” in Proceedings of the Marking our Difference conference 2003, University of Melbourne, ISBN 0 7340 3057 6, 209-221 </li>
<li>National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters of Australia (2004), NAATI Overseas Testing Guidelines, <a href="http://www.naati.com.au/publications.htm" target="_blank">http://www.naati.com.au/publications.htm</a> </li>
<li>Transcend (2000), "Is This a Good Translation?" Checklist: <a href="http://www.transcend.net/pdf/good_translation.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.transcend.net/pdf/good_translation.pdf</a> </li>
<li>Universitat Pompeu Fabra - Departament de Traduccio i Filologia. La Rambla, 30-32. 08002 Barcelona, Doctorat en Comunicacio multilingue <a href="http://www.upf.edu/dtf/multilingue/eng/assignatures/assignatures.htm#TradB" target="_blank">http://www.upf.edu/dtf/multilingue/eng/assignatures/assignatures.htm#TradB</a> </li>
<li>White, J.S. (200K) 'How to evaluate machine translation', in <span class="italic">Computers and translation : a translator's guide</span> edited by Harold Somers, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, ISBN 9027216401 (Europe), 1588113779 (US), 211-244 </li>
</ul><div>source: http://callej.org/</div></div><div class="chapter"><h3>Biography</h3><b>Brian McCarthy</b> is Associate Professor in French at the University of Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia. His principal research interests are in foreign language teaching methodology, computer assisted language learning, software development, phonetics and translation.</div></div><div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2006- Brian McCarthy & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X)</div><div class="counter"><br />
</div></div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-84676949847073544602011-12-03T18:01:00.001-08:002011-12-03T18:01:06.004-08:00Longman English Interactive:A Complete CALL Curriculum<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Longman English Interactive:A Complete CALL Curriculum </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"><ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X </li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online </li>
<li>Vol. 7, No. 2, January 2006</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"><h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"><ul><li>Douglas E. Forster </li>
<li><a href="mailto:forster@fc.jwu.ac.jp">forster@fc.jwu.ac.jp</a> </li>
<li>Japan Women's University, Tokyo, Japan <br />
</li>
</ul></div><div class="article"><div class="chapter"><h3>Introduction</h3>This article evaluates Longman English Interactive, levels 2 and 3, American English CD-based software by Michael Rost and Marjorie Fuchs (2003). In April, 2005, the Department of English at Japan Women's University (JWU) implemented a new curriculum for its required, one-year language lab course for English major freshmen utilizing this software. Prior to this change, the class was taught using two, listening-based textbooks. <br />
According to the publisher, the Longman English Interactive software "is a multi-level, video-based, integrated-skills program that includes more than 100 hours of instruction per level." In addition, it "provides practice in grammar, speaking, listening, vocabulary, pronunciation, reading, and writing" and "students develop essential skills as they work with: contemporary and engaging video, audio, animations" and "extensive practice activities." However, since Longman English Interactive is basically a self-study software package, the challenge was how to implement it in a language lab setting with a teacher as a facilitator. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>General Description</h3>Longman English Interactive consists of three levels: beginning (1), intermediate (2), and advanced (3) and is available in both American and British English. The software is limited to PC platforms (Windows 98, XP, 2000 with Server Pack 2 or higher, or NT 4.0 with Service Pack 5 or higher). Non-English Windows 2000 requires the Professional edition. The software is limited to PC platforms (Windows 98, XP, 2000 with Server Pack 2 or higher, or NT 4.0 with Service Pack 5 or higher). Non-English Windows 2000 systems require the Professional edition. In addition, a Pentium II processor of 400+ MHz and 64+ RAM (128 MB recommended), a 16-bit graphics card, sound card, microphone, and speakers (Microphones plugged into USB ports are not supported), a monitor resolution of 800 X 600 or higher, and a 10X CD-ROM drive are required. The software works within the Internet Explorer browser (5.5 or higher is recommended) and Netscape and AOL browsers are not supported. The browser must have the following plug-ins installed: Macromedia Flash 5 (or higher) and Shockwave 8 (or higher), Apple's QuickTime 5 (or higher), and Sun's Java 1.4.1 (or higher). Finally, Adobe Acrobat Reader 4.0 (or higher) must be installed. The software is available in a single user or network version. <br />
Each level is on a separate CD-ROM and organized into 15 modules: A1-A5, B1-B5, and C1-C5. Each module consists of listening, speaking, grammar, vocabulary, listening challenge, pronunciation, and reading activities followed by a review quiz and a unit summary. After completing five modules, for example, A1 through A5, the students take a test which consists of listening, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and reading. After completing all 15 modules, the students take a "Level Test" and receive a "Progress Report." <br />
The software includes useful resources for students which include the "Longman Dictionary," a "Glossary" and a "Grammar Reference." In addition, the student can read explanations in one of nine languages: English, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, German, French, Korean, Chinese or Japanese. The network version includes a "Class Report" in which the instructor can view each student's scores quizzes and tests for Modules A through C as well as the Level Test. Unfortunately, the class report does not monitor which activities the students have or have not completed. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Procedures</h3>The software delivers the material to students in a well-laid out, easy to use interface utilizing text, audio, and video. The listening section focuses on comprehension. The student first reads the text below the video and then watches the video. She then reads multiple-choice questions and clicks on the answers. For example, the student reads: "Chris takes a taxi. Sam, the driver, knows Chris. Listen. How does Sam know Chris?" The student watches the video with the following dialog: <br />
<span class="bold">Chris:</span> Taxi! <br />
<span class="bold">Sam:</span> Yeah. <br />
<span class="bold">Chris:</span> 989 Union Street, please. <br />
<span class="bold">Sam:</span> Sure. Wait, you're…the guy from the travel office. <br />
<span class="bold">Chris:</span> Pardon me? <br />
<span class="bold">Sam:</span> You came into our office last week…to I-Travel. <br />
<span class="bold">Chris:</span> Right, I did. You look familiar, too. <br />
<span class="bold">Sam:</span> Yeah, I work there part-time. <br />
<span class="bold">Chris:</span> Oh, right. Now I remember you…So you work at I-Travel and drive a taxi? <br />
<span class="bold">Sam:</span> Yeah, I have two part-time jobs. <br />
<span class="bold">Chris:</span> Wow, two jobs. Sounds busy. <br />
The student reads and answers questions based on what she has just watched and heard. For example: <br />
1. Where is Chris going?<br />
a. To I-Travel.<br />
b. To his office.<br />
c. To 989 Union Street.<br />
<br />
After answering the questions, the student can check her answers. In addition, she can read a transcript of the dialog and click on underlined vocabulary words to get their meanings. <br />
After watching the same video again, the student completes a "drag and drop" exercise in which she inserts vocabulary words into blanks in the dialog. <br />
The speaking section is a role-play activity in which the student chooses to be one of two characters, for example, Chris or Sam. She can then choose to be shown an example, shown an example with blanks, or shown no example. By clicking the play button to begin, the student sees a speech bubble and says her character's lines. As she speaks, she is recording the dialog which she can then review. <br />
The grammar section contains explanations that can be both read and listened to, followed by drag and drop and multiple-choice question activities. For example: <br />
1. <span class="bold">Luis:</span> Is Paul your husband?<br />
<span class="bold">Laura:</span> Yes, <span class="bold"><span class="u">he is</span></span>. He's a great guy. <br />
In the vocabulary section, the student clicks on words to listen to the word and its example sentence. She then chooses the matching definition and then drags it to the word. If the answer is correct, it will stay. If the answer is incorrect, it will snap back. In the drag and drop exercise, the student has two minutes to complete the exercise in which she reads each sentence and drags and drops the answer into the blanks. If the answer is correct, it will stay. If the answer is incorrect, it will snap back. <br />
In the pronunciation section, the students listen to and read the text, focusing on stress in a dialog. For example: "We've MET before." She also listens for intonation in dialogs that give clarification. For example: <br />
<span class="bold">A:</span> Be sure to study for the quiz tomorrow.<br />
<span class="bold">B:</span> <span class="bold">There's a quiz tomorrow?</span> Oh, no! <br />
The reading section focuses first on vocabulary. The student reads an article and guesses the meaning of words in a list, dragging and dropping the answers into blanks. For example, the student reads: "Are you looking for a job? Go to BestJobz.com. It's the number one job site on the Internet! Look for job openings, learn about companies, put your resume online, post a job-wanted ad." The student answers: "You can post your job-wanted ad on the BestJobz.com website." Next, the student reads the same article and focuses on comprehension, answer multiple-choice questions. For example: <br />
2. You can find information about companies on an online job site.<br />
a. True.<br />
b. False.<br />
c. No information.<br />
<br />
</div><div class="chapter"><h3>Approach</h3>The following explanation will outline how levels 2 and 3 have been adapted for in-class as well as self-study use. In the first semester, Longman English Interactive 2 is taught, followed by level 3 in the second semester. The students complete all of the listening, speaking, pronunciation, and related review quiz sections (listening and pronunciation). For self-study, the students complete the grammar, vocabulary, and reading exercises, including those found in the review quizzes. For all in-class activities, the instructor guides the students through each listening and speaking activity by first modeling the activity. After students have completed the activity, the instructor reviews the material, having students repeat words and phrases to gain correct pronunciation and natural fluency. In addition, the instructor can explain cultural points that are highlighted in the activities as well as those that are not. <br />
Students are required to complete all self-study activities, review tests, and module tests in the language lab during times when the LL is not in use. This requires an additional 30 to 90-minutes each week. Students are required to submit their progress report for each module and all tests completed. Each week, after completing both in class and self-study activities, the students are required to write and submit a "Learning Diary" in which they comment on the activities they have successfully completed and those that gave them trouble. In addition, students can write specific questions related to the activities to which her instructor can respond. <br />
In both the first and second semester, an in-house written mid-term and final exam are given following the content of the English Interactive programs. These exams test listening comprehension, pronunciation and stress, vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension. The exams are administered by each LL instructor on an appointed date and time. The course requirements are regular attendance, the completion of all in-class and self-study activities, review and module tests, and learning diaries. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Conclusion</h3>Student feedback to the software and syllabus has been very positive. The students enjoy the contemporary content of the video and audio exercises and in particular, find that their vocabulary grows by leaps and bounds as they progress through the course. In addition, while most students at JWU do not "enjoy" the grammar and reading exercises, they all recognize their need to improve their skills in these areas, particularly their grammar. They have also done a very good job writing their weekly learning diaries because it gives them a chance to ask their instructor particular questions and get direct feedback on different parts of the course that are giving them trouble. <br />
From an instructor's point of view, the Longman English Interactive software offers a welcome break from textbook-based instruction, and although there is not a lot of direct interaction between the teacher and the student, the instructor can monitor the students' progress by viewing the class reports. The instructors at JWU are free to choose how they follow the in-class assignments, as long as they are able to complete all of the activities listed in the syllabus. While some instructors prefer to guide their students through each activity, others find that it is more useful to review the pronunciation sections with the students at the beginning of each class session, then letting the students work on their own to complete the rest of the in-class exercises. In this case, the instructor can walk around the LL and monitor the students, providing individualized attention to those students who have questions or need help. Personally, I am a firm believer in independent learning strategies; therefore, this software fits perfectly in the language lab scheme. Those readers interested in obtaining the complete, 12-week syllabus for both the first and second semesters, should contact the author at <forster@fc.jwu.ac.jp>. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Software Titles</h3></div><div class="chapter"><h3>Longman English Interactive 2</h3>Publisher: Pearson Education, Inc. <br />
Development: Michael Rost </div><div class="chapter"><h3>Longman English Interactive 3</h3>Publisher: Pearson Education, Inc. <br />
Development: Michael Rost & Marjorie Fuchs <br />
source: http://callej.org/</div><div class="chapter"><h3>Author</h3>Douglas Forster has been teaching in Japan for the past 15 years. He is currently teaching at Japan Women's University, Tokyo. </div></div><div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2006- Douglas E. Forster & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X )</div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-76985103167442727062011-12-03T18:00:00.005-08:002011-12-03T18:00:34.501-08:00Developing Effective TEFL Course with 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Steps for Developing English Language Web-Based Tutorials<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Basic Steps for Developing English Language Web-Based Tutorials </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="outline"> <div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li><i>CALL-EJ Online</i></li>
<li>Vol. 7, No.1, June 2005</li>
</ul></div></div><div class="title"> <h2><br />
</h2></div><div align="right" class="author"> <ul><li><b>Zuwati Hasim</b> </li>
<li><a href="mailto:zuwati_hasim@um.edu.my">zuwati_hasim@um.edu.my</a> </li>
<li>University of Malaya, Malaysia </li>
</ul></div><div class="article"> <div class="chapter"> <h3>ABSTRACT</h3>Learning English should not be restricted to the learning in the classrooms. With the various technologies that we have, teachers, in particular, have to be selective and productive to ensure that their teaching is useful, varied and interesting. One of the ways is by promoting the web-based learning to the students. Since there is no English language website designed specifically for the local students, teachers have to take a step further in which they should start designing websites that cater the needs of their learners. Thus, the aim of this paper is to present the key elements of designing English language web-based tutorials that suit the students' needs. </div><div class="chapter"> <h3>INTRODUCTION</h3>The development of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has given great impact in most fields including education, specifically to the teaching of English language. Recently, we notice that teachers have started using ICT in their teaching rather than just focusing on teacher talk, textbooks dependent, as well as classroom limited environment and approach. In fact, if we browse the Internet, we can find more than two millions websites designed or developed for the purpose of teaching and learning English language. This shows that more and more course developers, teachers and learners have come to realize the use of ICT in the English language teaching and learning. Among the most popular websites for English language teaching and learning are: <span class="italic">BBC English</span> (<a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/index.shtml">www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/index.shtml</a>), <span class="italic">Dave's ESL Cafe</span> (<a href="http://www.eslcafe.com/">www.eslcafe.com</a>), <span class="italic">Global English</span> (<a href="http://www.globalenglish.com/">www.globalenglish.com</a>)<span class="italic">, and English Language Resources for Teachers and Students of English</span> (<a href="http://www.eltweb.com/liason/">www.eltweb.com/liason</a>). <br />
According to McKenzie (1998), the use of web-based tutorials on the Internet has had a substantial impact on the nature of university teaching for it has brought about a major improvement in the ability of students to read, write, and reason. The new instructional technologies such as computers and Internet have made language learning becomes more interactive and interesting. The use of email and chat rooms or forum, for example, can promote communication and discussions between teachers and learners or among learners. Some researchers like Tunku Mohani (1998), Zuwati (1998), Muehleisen (1997), and Michael (1996), agree that computers are practically valuable to the language teaching and learning for they encourage and motivate learners, promote autonomous learning, integrate all the skills needed in language learning, provide immediate feedback and allow self-paced learning. </div><div class="chapter"><h3>A SHIFT OF PARADIGM</h3>Wedemeyer (1991) as quoted in Chakravarthy (2004) mentioned that "technological developments demand new, innovative approaches to learning and living." The change in technological tools has somehow affected the nature of our jobs as teachers and the needs of our clients, the learners. In this case, we need to make a shift in the methods or approaches used, the role of the teachers, the role of the learners. This is supported by Pandian&Narasiman (2003) in Shaker (2004): <br />
<div class="paragraph"><span class="italic">"the teaching profession in the new millennium has taken a more challenging task and in order to breed students that are knowledgeable and informed, teachers require more than the traditional teaching method...teachers have to be aware of the effective use of technology..." </span></div>Figure 1 below summarizes the shift of paradigm in language teaching and learning as outlined by Supyan (2004): <br />
<div align="center" class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_figure1.gif" /> <br />
Figure 1</div>As technology develops, the nature of language teaching and learning also experiences immediate changes in terms of approach, methodology and pedagogy. The focus is now more on constructivist approach whereby teachers need to play multi-roles: instructor - facilitator - manager - designer. With this approach, learners are being responsible for their own in which learning is autonomous and self-directed. With the ICT development, teachers also could use an integrated and eclectic kind of approaches or techniques in teaching the target language. <br />
</div><div class="chapter">THE NEED FOR TAILORED WEB-BASED TUTORIALS The needs of the English learners may differ from one country to another or from one institution to another institution. Most of the web pages for language teaching and learning are designed by lesson designers or educators from the west and some from other Asian countries such as Singapore, Korea and Japan. These existing web pages for English Language learning may be too general or may not be suitable for our local students, Malaysians. It is undeniable that there are some websites designed by the local teachers, however, that particular websites are usually designed for a particular group of learners or they are too general and do not cater the needs for certain groups of English language learners. Hence, it is essential for the local English teachers to design the web pages or web-based tutorials that suit their students' learning needs. <br />
Apparently, some teachers are reluctant to design the web pages or web-based tutorials due to several reasons. They are: <br />
<ul class="nomark"><li>i. lack of computer knowledge; </li>
<li>ii. do not know how to design and what program/software to choose; </li>
<li>iii. do not know what to include in the website; and </li>
<li>iv. lack of time </li>
</ul>There are many things to be put into consideration when designing the web page. For instance, when teachers want to develop a web-based tutorial, they must, first, be computer literate. Then, they have to study the needs of the learners and analyze the existing teaching objectives and perhaps come up with the new teaching and learning objectives that suit the needs of the students. Besides, they also need to select the necessary materials to be put online, develop interactive activities, decide on the tasks and exercises, etc. <br />
Realizing the problems faced by most of the teachers, we cannot actually blame them for not being willing to design the web page for their teaching purposes because designing the web-based tutorials requires careful planning, needs a lot of preparation, and is time consuming. Thus certain guidelines should be given to assist teachers in planning and thus making the process of designing the English language web-based tutorials becomes easier and faster. Teachers should be introduced to the basic steps for developing the web page that will benefit both the teacher and their English language students. It is hoped that the 5-BASIC STEPS presented in this paper will encourage the English language teachers to develop English language web-based tutorials for their respective students. Once teachers have developed the English web-based tutorials, they can then vary their teaching approaches and strategies, thus making teaching and learning become more interesting and meaningful. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"><h3>5 STEPS TO DESIGNING WEB-BASED TUTORIALS</h3>In designing a language course, Hutchinson & Waters (1994) were of the idea that "designing a course is fundamentally a matter of asking questions in order to provide a reasoned basis for the subsequent processes of syllabus design, materials writing, classroom teaching and evaluation." From that idea, they came out with a framework for syllabus designing that uses WH-questions as the basis such as: <span class="italic">why does the students need to learn?, who is going to be involved in the process?, where is the learning to take place?, when is the learning to take place?, what does the students need to learn?, how will the learning be achieved?</span> <br />
Dubin&Olshtain (1990), also, suggested that a syllabus or a course outline should ideally describes: <br />
<ul><li>what the learners are expected to know at the end of the course (course objectives); </li>
<li>what is to be taught or learned during the course; </li>
<li>when it is to be taught and at what rate of progress; </li>
<li>what are the different levels or stages; </li>
<li>how it is to be taught (suggesting procedures, techniques, and materials); </li>
<li>how it is to be evaluated (suggesting testing and evaluating mechanisms). </li>
</ul>By adapting the work of Hutchinson&Waters and Dubin&Olshtain, a framework of 5 basic steps for developing English web-based tutorials is constructed. Figure 2 below represents the 5 Basic STEPS for developing English web-based tutorials. <br />
<div align="center" class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_figure2.gif" /><br />
Figure 2: Steps Involved in Designing English Web-Based Tutorials </div>Here is the description of the stages presented in Figure 2: <br />
<br />
<table bgcolor="#000000" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td> <table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1"><tbody>
<tr bgcolor="#ffffff"><th>5 BASIC STEPS TO DESIGN/DEVELOP WEB-BASED TUTORIALS </th></tr>
<tr bgcolor="#ffffff"><td> <br />
<h4>STEP 1 - STUDY</h4>- The first thing that teachers or web developers need to do is to study the various existing syllabi that are designed specifically for learning English of a particular level. This is to ensure that the web-based tutorials which we are going to design match with the course standards or general aims of the course. <h4>STEP 2 - NEEDS ANALYSIS</h4>- Teachers and web-developers need to carry out a needs analysis (using WH-questions as the scaffolding of their needs analysis questionnaires - WHO, WHY, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, and HOW). Teachers also have to be aware that all the questions generated must be relevant and helpful in determining the specific course objectives and the course contents. - It is also important to carry out the needs analysis study to ensure that the lessons we are going to designed do match the needs of the learners. <br />
<h4>STEP 3 - WEB-DESIGN PLANNING STAGE</h4>- Based on the NEEDS ANALYSIS, we have to determine the specific objectives and arrange them according the appropriate level - Basic, Intermediate, or Upper Intermediate. <br />
- Once, teachers have arranged the specific objectives into appropriate level, they then need to select suitable materials that match the specific course objectives, as well as the levels. <br />
- Teachers will have to focus and look at the course objectives very closely for they will help us in selecting the material selection. <br />
- Once the materials are selected, teachers then need to decide on the approaches. Deciding on the approaches will help the teachers to design the kind of activities for a particular lesson. In terms of approach, teachers can use either task-based approach or content-based approach or an eclectic. The approach used will then determine the roles of the teachers and learners, as well as the activities or tasks to be set for the web-based tutorials. <br />
- At this stage, teachers need to again ask questions like: <br />
<ul class="nomark"><li>1. What are the specific objectives? </li>
<li>2. What materials are to be used? </li>
<li>3. What kind of approaches to be incorporated? </li>
<li>4. What kind of activities to be included/ designed? </li>
</ul><h4>STEP 4 - EVALUATION</h4>- At this stage, teachers need to evaluate the materials collected or gathered. <br />
- Evaluation on the materials gathered and activities designed is done to ensure that the materials and activities fit the objectives, approaches, and the needs of the learners. <br />
<h4>STEP 5 - STORYBOARD</h4>- A storyboard should be written to ensure the flow of the web and the lessons presented. <br />
- Storyboard is necessary for it helps web-designers or teachers to organize their lessons and activities in a feasible way. <br />
- At this stage, we need to take the following into consideration (Windeatt, Hardisty,&Eastment (2000): <br />
<ul><li>level of student </li>
<li>time/duration </li>
<li>objectives (purpose of a particular activities) </li>
<li>technical requirements </li>
<li>procedure (provide step-by-step instructions) </li>
<li>variations (activities for different levels)(follow-up activities) </li>
</ul>A sample of the storyboard is presented in Appendix 1. <br />
</td></tr>
</tbody></table></td></tr>
</tbody></table>Windeatt, Hardisty,&Eastment (2000) suggested that when designing the web activities, web-designers should take the following items into account: <br />
<table><tbody>
<tr><td> 1.</td><td> Level</td><td> - the level of student for which the activity is most likely to be suitable; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 2.</td><td> Time</td><td> - a rough guide to the time the activity is likely to take; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 3.</td><td> Aims</td><td> - the purpose of the activity (should match the course objectives); </td></tr>
<tr><td> 4.</td><td> TechnicalRequirements</td><td> - the equipment and software needed for the activity; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 5.</td><td> Knowledge</td><td> - any special knowledge needed for students to do the activity; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 6.</td><td> Preparation</td><td> - what you have to do or prepare before the activity; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 7.</td><td> Procedure</td><td> - provide step-by-step instructions for each activity; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 8.</td><td> Follow-up</td><td> - suggestions for follow-up work, wither in class, or for self-access, or homework; </td></tr>
<tr><td> 9.</td><td> Variations</td><td> - provide activities for students of different levels. </td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div class="chapter"><h3>GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING WEB-BASED TUTORIALS</h3>There are several other basic guidelines that teachers or web designers need to pay attention to when designing English web-based tutorials (based on the works of the researchers like Kelly (2000) and Snookes, Ohtake & Kubota (2001). When designing the web, we need to ensure that:<br />
<ul class="nomark"><li>a. the teaching materials presented are in a suitable format - e.g. the choices of background and font colors, font size, and font types; </li>
<li>b. the site is useable by everyone of the target group regardless of their level of proficiency in the target language; </li>
<li>c. the site is user-friendly in which users can navigate easily with a minimal number of clicks; </li>
<li>d. the site is useful and fun to use; </li>
<li>e. the site allows fast-loading pages by removing unnecessary objects or graphics; and </li>
<li>f. the site does not violate copyrights. </li>
</ul></div><div class="chapter"><h3>SUGGESTED AUTHORING SYSTEMS</h3>Once teachers have followed the 5 steps, it is time for them to choose the program that they are going to use for developing their own web-based tutorials. The easiest one is by using the authoring systems. There are two authoring systems that can be suggested here which are quite simple for teachers to explore and work with. They are: <span class="bold">Microsoft FrontPage 2003 and Hot Potatoes</span>. These two authoring systems are suggested because teachers can easily type their work in the Microsoft Word and then just transfer the information or the selected content via cut&paste procedures. <br />
'<span class="italic">Hot Potatoes</span>' is developed by <span class="bold">University of Victoria CALL Laboratory Research and Development</span> team. The <span class="italic">Hot Potatoes</span> suite includes six applications, which enable teachers to create interactive multiple-choice, short-answer, jumbled-sentence, crossword, matching/ordering and gap-fill exercises for the World Wide Web. With '<span class="italic">Hot Potatoes</span>' authoring system, teachers are not required to have programming knowledge. In this authoring system, there is a tutorial section whereby teachers or course developers can learn from before they start using the system. '<span class="italic">Hot Potatoes</span>' is a user-friendly system. For further information on Hot Potatoes please go to: <a href="http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/halfbaked//">http://web.uvic.ca/hrd/halfbaked/</a>. Here are the examples of Hot Potatoes Suite (University of Victoria): <br />
<div align="center" class="img"> <table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0" style="width: 800px;"><tbody>
<tr> <td valign="TOP" width="51%"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_image1.jpg" width="400" /> </td><td valign="TOP" width="49%"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_image2.jpg" width="400" /> </td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="TOP" width="51%"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_image3.jpg" width="400" /> </td><td valign="TOP" width="49%"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_image4.jpg" width="400" /> </td></tr>
<tr> <td valign="TOP" width="51%"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_image5.jpg" width="400" /> </td><td valign="TOP" width="49%"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_image6.jpg" width="400" /> </td></tr>
</tbody></table><span class="caption">Source: Hot Potatoes, University of Victoria</span> </div>'<span class="italic">FrontPage 2003</span>', on the other hand, is an authoring system developed by Microsoft. Users or teachers who are quite new in the designing of web-page can develop their web pages using the template given. In the FrontPage 2003, users are given a choice to either use the templates given or to create their own desired web page. Another advantage of using this software is that users can combine the activities created using '<span class="italic">Hot Potatoes</span>' into the FrontPage 2003 and it can be updated at any time.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"><h3>Appendix 1</h3><div align="center" class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_appendix1.gif" /> </div><div align="center" class="img"><img src="http://callej.org/journal/7-1/zh_appendix2.gif" /> </div></div><div class="reference"> <h3>REFERENCES</h3>Bush, Michael D. (1996). <i>Language learning via the web</i>.. <span class="italic">CALICO.</span> Albuquerque: May.Chakravarthy, G. (1979). Remedial work in English for secondary schools. Seminar Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggeris Sekolah Menengah. Perlis: Jabatan Pendidkan Negeri Perlis.<br />
Chambers, F. (1980). A re-evaluation of needs analysis. <i>ESP journal</i>, 1(1), 25-33.<br />
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Dubin&Olshtain. (1990). <i>Course design: Developing programs and materials for language learning</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />
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<br />
source: http://callej.org/<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Biography</h3><b>Zuwati Hasim</b> is a lecturer at the Language & Literacy Department of the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya in Malaysia. Her research interests are in the areas of CALL, language testing, teacher education and reading. She has presented and published a number of papers within her area of interest.<br />
</div></div><div class="copyright">Copyright (c) 2005- Zuwati Hasim & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X). All rights reserved.</div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-72461786482356132742011-12-03T17:58:00.005-08:002011-12-03T17:58:50.847-08:00Development and EFaluation of an ESL Web Site on Learning-To-Learn English%3Ch3+class%3D%22post-title+entry-title%22%3E%0D%0A+Development+and+Evaluation+of+an+ESL+Web+Site+on+Learning-To-Learn+English+%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22post-header%22%3E%0D%0A++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22outline%22%3E%0D%0A+++++++%3Cdiv+class%3D%22journal%22%3E%0D%0A+++%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EISSN+1442-438X%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ECALL-EJ+Online%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EVol.+6%2C+No.1%2C+June+2004%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22%3E%0D%0A++%3Ch2%3E%0D%0A%0D%0A%3C%2Fh2%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22%3E%0D%0A+++%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EMohamed+A.+Embi%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22mailto%3Am.amin%40ukm.my%22%3Em.amin%40ukm.my%3C%2Fa%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ENational+University+of+Malaysia%2C+Malaysia%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22article%22%3E%0D%0A+++++%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AAbstract%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AThe++era+of+IT+and+globalization+has+seen+the+growing+of+Internet+as+a+++potential+tool+for+enhancing+ESL+teaching+and+learning.+However%2C+the++success+of++this+tool+will+depend+on+teachers%27+and+learners%27+ability+to++examine+and+make+sense+of+the+information+they+access+as+well+as+to++evaluate+the+merits+of+the+information+encountered.+The+purpose+of+this++paper+is++twofold.+Firstly%2C+it+describes+development+of+a++Malaysian-based+ESL+web+site+on+learning-to-learn+English+known+as+%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EE-Learn%3C%2Fspan%3E+++developed+by+the+first+author.++Secondly%2C+the+paper+presents+findings++of+a+research+study+designed+to++examine+classroom++learners%27+and++teachers%27+reaction+on+%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EE-Learn%3C%2Fspan%3E++in+terms+of++its++i%29+reliability%2C+ii%29+user-friendliness%2C+iii%29+interactivity%2C+iv%29+++attractiveness%2C++v%29+usefulness%2C+vi%29+suitability%2C+and+vi%29+content+A+total++of+80+ESL++learners+and++15+ESL+teachers+from+2+schools+in+the+state+of++Negeri+Sembilan%2C+Malaysia++responded++to+a+self-report+questionnaire++consisting+of+Likert+items.+A+descriptive++statistic++using+frequency++count+and+mean+score+is+used+in+the+data+analysis.+The++results+show+++that%2C+as+a+whole%2C+both+group+of+respondents+reacted+positively+towards+++the++learning-to-learn+English+web+site+developed.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AIntroduction%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0ARecent+work+on++language+learning+strategy+research+suggests+that++successful+ESL++learners+are+those+who+employ+a+wide+range+of+key+language+learning++strategies+%28e.g.+Green+%26amp%3B+Oxford%2C+1995%3B+Embi%2C+1996%2C+2000a%3B+Cohen+++1998%3B+Embi%2C+Long%2C+%26amp%3B+Hamzah%2C+2001%29.+One+important+implication+of+this+++finding+is+that+less+successful+ESL+learners+can+be+helped+to+improve++their++language+learning+through+learning-to-learn+or+learner+training.++Nevertheless%2C++according+to+Embi+%282000b%29%2C+although+several+models+of++learning-to-learn+have+been+reported+in+the+literature+%28e.g.+Ellis+%26amp%3B++Sinclair%2C+1898%3B+Rubin%2C++1989%3B+Oxford%2C+1990%3B+Brown%2C+1991%3B+Chamot+%26amp%3B++O%27Malley%2C+1994%3B+Rubin+%26amp%3B+Thompson%2C+1994%3B+Weaver+%26amp%3B+Cohen%2C+1997%3B++Chamot%2C+1998%3B+Rausch%2C+1998%29++none+is+available+on+the+web.+This+paper++firstly+describes+a+Malaysian-based+ESL+web+site+on+learning-to-learn++English+known+as+%3Cspan+class%3D%22italic%22%3EE-Learn%3C%2Fspan%3E+++developed+by+the++first+author+consisting+of+six+main+procedures+that+can+be+used+to+make++ESL+learners+be+aware+of+the+key+strategies+for++successful+ESL++learning.+The+web+site+is+developed+based+on+an+online+strategy+++awareness+training+model+known+as+SMART+Net+developed+earlier+by+Embi++%282000a%2C++2000b%29.+The+paper+also+presents+findings+of+a+study+designed+to++find+out++classroom+learners%27+and+teachers%27+perception+regarding+the++developed+learning-to-learn+English+web+site+in+terms+of+its+i%29++reliability%2C+ii%29+user-friendliness%2C+iii%29+interactivity%2C+iv%29++attractiveness%2C+v%29++usefulness%2C+vi%29+suitability%2C+and+vii%29+content.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AModels+of+Learner+Training%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AAccording++to+Chamot+%281998%29%2C+the+intent+of+learner+training+or+language++learning+++strategies+instruction+is+to+help+students+become+better+language+++learners.+In+a++similar+fashion%2C+Wenden+%281998%29+argues+that+the+main++purpose+of+learner++training++is+to+promote+learner+autonomy.+Learner++training+activities+are+also++expected+to++prepare+learners+for+lifelong++learning+%28Embi%2C+2000a%29.+In+short%2C+it+is++generally++agreed+that+learner++training+should+help+learners+develop+their++expertise+as+learners%2C+++i.e.+learning-to-learn.++++%0D%0AA+number+of+models+of+learner+training+are+available+in+the+literature.+++Based++on+empirical+research%2C+Brown+%281989%29%2C+for+example%2C+highlights++stra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to Knowledge: Implications of Universal Design for CALL Environments%3Ch3+class%3D%22post-title+entry-title%22%3E%0D%0A+Access+to+Knowledge%3A+Implications+of+Universal+Design+for+CALL+Environments+%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22post-header%22%3E%0D%0A++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22journal%22%3E%0D%0A+++%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EISSN+1442-438X%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ECALL-EJ+Online%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EVol.+5%2C+No.+2%2C+January+2004%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22%3E%0D%0A++%3Ch2%3E%0D%0A%0D%0A%3C%2Fh2%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22%3E%0D%0A+++%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EJoy+Lynn+Egbert%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22mailto%3Aegbert%40mail.wsu.edu%22%3Eegbert%40mail.wsu.edu%3C%2Fa%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EWashington+State+University%2C+U.S.A.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22article%22%3E%0D%0A+++++%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AAbstract%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AThe++purpose+of+this+conceptual+paper+is+to+explore+Universal+Design%2C+a+++model+from+the+field+of+architecture+and+design+that+is+finding+recent+++applications+in+education.+Called+Universal+Instructional+Design+%28UID%29+++when+applied+in+education%2C+UID+environment+conditions+are+similar+in+++many+ways+to+conditions+that+effective+language+teachers+design+into+++their+instructional+environments.++This+paper+addresses+how+the+UID+++model+might+profitably+be+applied+in+computer-assisted+language+learning+++%28CALL%29+classrooms+to+help+all+of+our+students+gain+access+to+classroom+++instruction++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AIntroduction%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AIn+the+past+it+has++often+been+profitable+to+explore+the+ways+in+which++theories%2C++principles%2C+and+models+from+other+disciplines+apply+to+what+we+know+++about+and+do+in+language+classrooms+%28for+a+very+interesting+example%2C+see+++Larsen-Freeman%27s+1997+application+of+Chaos+Theory+to+second+language++acquisition%29.+By++having+taken+such+an+approach%2C+we+have+not+only++learned+more+about+related++fields%2C+but+we+have+also+opened+the+field+of++language+learning+to+entertaining+possibilities+that+might+not++otherwise+be+considered.+In+many+cases%2C++these+cross-disciplinary++explorations+have+provided+additional+support+for++existing+theories++about+how+language+classrooms+should+operate%3B+in+others%2C+they+have+added++a+new+dimension+to+our+investigations+of+language+learning.+This+type++of+examination+remains+valuable+as+we+develop+new+theories+and+models+of++language+learning.++++%0D%0AThe+purpose+of+this+paper+is+to+explore+Universal+Design%2C+a+model+from+++the+field+of+architecture+and+design+that+is+finding+recent+applications+++in+education.+This+paper+first+introduces+the+Universal+Design+model+++and+then+describes+recent+discussions+of+the+model+in+education.+The+++paper+next+suggests+how+the+model+relates+to+CALL+environment+conditions+++and+provides+examples+and+discussion+of+how+this+model+might+be+++implemented+in+CALL+classroom+environments.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AUniversal+Design%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AUniversal+Design++%28UD%29+is+widely+defined+as+%22the+design+of+products+and+environments+to++be+usable+by+all+people%2C+to+the+greatest+extent++possible%2C+without+the++need+for+adaptation+or+specialized+design%22+%28Bowe%2C+2001%2C+p.24%29.+Products++and+environments+designed+with+UD+principles+in+mind++++%0D%0A%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3Eare+designed+to+be+used+by+as+many+people+as+possible.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3Ecan+be+used+in+ways+that+people+choose.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3Eare+easy+to+understand+and+use.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3Ework%2Fare+accessible+in+all+kinds+of+settings.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3Eaccommodate+error.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3Erequire+minimal+physical+effort+to+use+and+accommodate++differences+in+size+or+position.%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%28adapted+from+Bowe+2000%3B+Burgstahler%2C+2002%3B+Connell%2C+Jones%2C+Mace%2C+++Mueller%2C+Mullick%2C+Ostroff%2C+Sanford%2C+Steinfeld%2C+Story%2C+%26amp%3B++Vanderheiden%2C+1997%29++++%0D%0AExamples+of+products+and+enDironments+designed+on+the+basis+of+these+++conditions+include+power+doors+on+buildings%2C+child-proof+but+older-adult++accessible+bottle+tops%2C+products+that+include+instructions+for+assembly++in+multiple+formats+%28e.g.%2C+text%2C+graphic%2C+and+video%29%2C+and+homes+and++offices+that+are+compliant+with+the+U.S.+Americans+with+Disabilities+Act++%28ADA%29.+Although+these+principles+may+seem+simple+and+possibly++intuitive%2C+it+is+easy+to+call+to+mind+examples+of+products+and++environments+that+were+not++designed+based+on+UD+principles.+Many++language+classroom+environments%2C+based++implicitly+on+a+%22one+size+fits++all%22+model%2C+fall+into+this+category.+However%2C+educators+of+all+kinds+are++adapting+UD+principles+to+make+education+more+accessible%2C+as+outlined++below.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapte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Interaction in EFL Web-Based Debates: How Do Learners Develop Socially Constructed Knowledge?<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Collaborative Interaction in EFL Web-Based Debates: How Do Learners Develop Socially Constructed Knowledge? </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online</li>
<li>Vol. 5, No. 2, January 2004</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"> <h2><br />
</h2><a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note1"> </a></div><a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note1"> </a><div class="author"> <a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note1"> </a><ul><a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note1"> </a>
<li><a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note1">Teruo Fujiike</a></li>
<a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note1"> </a>
<li><a href="mailto:tfujiike@hyogo-c.ed.jp">tfujiike@hyogo-c.ed.jp</a></li>
<li>Akashi Senior High School, Japan</li>
</ul></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Abstract</h3>This paper focuses on interactions between Japanese learners of English as a foreign language using computer-mediated communication (CMC) in the second language (L2) classroom. CMC provides potential benefits for L2 learning because it enables a broader range of interaction. In this study, a synchronous on-line debate was conducted using a Bulletin Board System (BBS). Interactions through the on-line debates were analyzed based on Gunawardena, Lowe and Anderson's (1997) “Interaction Analysis Model” for examining social construction of knowledge. Based on their methods and theory of social constructivism, an investigation was made on how the on-line interactions could be qualitatively assessed, and on whether negotiations between the participants would generate construction of knowledge. In this paper two representative debate logs were analyzed to scrutinize how knowledge was co-constructed through social interaction. The value of debates for pedagogical use was also reconsidered, and new criteria for the debate evaluation were proposed. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Introduction</h3>The main purpose of this paper is to qualitatively analyze CMC based interactions between Japanese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). While there have been some studies on CMC in L2 settings conducted, very few studies have explored the quality of L2 learning through CMC. The major purpose of this study, thus, is to conduct a qualitative analysis of on-line debates in L2 settings. <br />
In this research, synchronous on-line debates are conducted using a BBS. In particular, this paper focuses on the interactions in the on-line debates, because debates by their nature allow the participants to express different points of view, which would be assumed to facilitate active interactions between the debaters. It is further conceived that participants' learning will be deepened in the active interaction. <br />
In order to obtain an analytical model and evaluation methods for this study, the “Interaction Analysis Model” by Gunawardena, Lowe and Anderson (1997) is of particular interest here. Based on the methods used in their study of social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing, the greater part of this paper is devoted to the examinations of on-line debates between Japanese EFL learners and the co-construction of knowledge observed in the debates. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>A review of previous literature</h3><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Some characteristics of CMC in L2 settings</h4>Studies which compare face-to-face interaction and CMC reported that CMC has several benefits for language learning. For example, CMC demands no turn taking competition (Kitade, 2000), provides for more equal participation (Beauvois, 1992; Chun, 1994; Kelm, 1992; Kern, 1995) and allows shy and less motivated learners to interact with others (Beauvois, 1992; Kelm, 1992). Another advantage is that the learner re-examines and edits the text-based communication to make the interaction more meaningful and comprehensible. In other words, learners are more aware of the language structures that they and their peers use to compose messages (Lee, 2002). Subsequently, this may lead them to attend to feedback or attempt frequent self-correction. Learners benefit from a focus on form (Lightbown & Pienemann, 1993; Pica, 1996) in attempting to overcome incorrect target language features. This internal monitor facilitates language acquisition. <br />
Other studies indicate that CMC enables learners to increase their language production and complexity because the participation structure is significantly different from a typical classroom interaction (Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995). For example, a reduction of teacher talk in CMC is a benefit of learners' language production. Learner-learner on-line interaction, therefore, should result in greater language production than that achieved in teacher-learner interaction. Other studies show that on-line interaction in language learning not only supports the development of students' language skills but also fosters students' interest and motivation in language learning in general (Cononelos & Oliva, 1993; Warschauer, 1996). <br />
Those observations are the fruit from the studies of CMC in L2 settings. However, very few studies have been conducted to make a qualitative assessment of L2 CMC interaction. Therefore, in this paper, the qualitative aspects of the interaction by EFL learners will be focused on. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Gunawardena, Lowe and Andersons' Model (1997) (See Appendix 1)</h4>Gunawardena, et al. developed the “Interaction Analysis Model” for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. They conducted a global on-line debate and analyzed the logs obtained from it. The purpose of their study was to develop an assessment system of the quality of interactions and the quality of the learning experience in a computer-mediated conferencing which has not been satisfactorily investigated. <br />
Their research was based on the studies by Garrison (1991), Henri (1991), and Newman, et al.'s (1995) models. They pointed out, however, that previous studies did not fully examine how to evaluate the process of knowledge construction that occurs through social negotiation in CMC. Moreover, they stated that the definitions of interaction in the models employed were “either unclear, or not very applicable to the pattern of interaction observed in the debate.” (p. 402) <br />
What is social constructivism? There are several theoretical positions on social constructivism in academic circles. Some of them are based on Vygotsky's social development theory. Vygotsky (1978) states, “Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter psychological) and then inside the child (intra psychological).” (p. 57) <br />
He stresses the influence of cultural and social contexts in learning and he holds the view that learning first takes place in interaction between two people (inter psychological) before it becomes a mental process for the individual (intra psychological). In this research CMC is used for on-line debate, because CMC is thought to provide an appropriate environment which supports collaboration and social interaction. Collaboration occurs when learners share others' views and they make a coordinated effort to solve problems together. Collaboration can increase social interaction and social interaction can develop the construction of knowledge, which leads to improved learning outcomes and promote deep learning. Based on the social constructivist theory, Gunawardena, et al. developed a constructivist model of CMC interaction, which is visualized in Figure 1. Each piece represents contributions by one or more persons based on experience, research, theory, etc. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/figure1.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Figure 1: A constructivist model of CMC interaction (Gunawardena, et al., 1997: 411)</span> </div><br />
Gunawardena et al.'s Interaction Analysis Model, which encompasses five phases and qualitatively assesses CMC interactions, is based on the criteria described in Appendix 1. By elaborating the model, it can be applied to this study as an analytical tool. Gunawardena et al. could confirm that their Interaction Analysis Model enabled them to provide the means to determine that knowledge construction occurred within a group through interaction among participants. <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Research</h3>Gunawardena, et al. conducted an on-line debate in an L1 setting, in which most of the participants were teachers and graduate students who were involved in distance education. By using the “Interaction Analysis Model”, they confirmed that the co-creation of knowledge and negotiation of meaning had occurred in the process of interaction. In the present study, I will look at how I conducted on-line debates between Japanese learners of English and analyze the interactions using Gunawardena et al.'s “Interaction Analysis Model”. I am particularly concerned with how the interaction can be qualitatively assessed and whether negotiation between the participants will bring about construction of knowledge. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Purpose of the Research</h3>The most distinguishing feature of this study is to qualitatively examine how learners of English develop the social construction of knowledge through CMC. This study provides a qualitative analysis of the CMC interaction between NNSs in an e-learning context. I understand that the effectiveness of CMC is brought about when it is used in tele-collaboration, in which the participants are located in different places and work together through CMC. In this research, however, each pair is requested to sit in the same room and to join in the debates. Although the conditions under which this study was conducted may have affected the interaction among the participants, the learning environment presented here, I assume, is the one which is accessible in ordinary school settings. In addition, the bottom line is how we use the computers. According to Chun (1994), “what computers can facilitate though, is human interaction among people in the same room as well as continents apart.” (p. 17) <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Procedures</h3>Experimental research on on-line debates between Japanese EFL learners of English was carried out. Using a web-based debate interface, which was originally developed for this study, how Japanese learners of English develop a social construction of knowledge through CMC was investigated. Three pairs of university students learning English as a foreign language participated in six debates and each of the pairs exchanged messages around the propositions presented by posting messages on a BBS. Two debate logs are chosen here to scrutinize how the participants construct their knowledge as a result of the interaction. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Tasks and participants</h3>Synchronous on-line debates through BBS were carried out in June, 2002. Six students<a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note2"><span class="sup">2</span></a> (four females and two males), whose ages range from 19 to 22, voluntarily participated in the research. All were undergraduate students enrolled in a general English course at the Hyogo University of Teacher Education, and all sessions were not related to their academic results. All participants were native speakers of Japanese and had been learning English for more than seven years. There were seven sessions in total, and each session lasted for about 90 minutes. Some portions of the second-grade level of STEP (the Society for Testing English Proficiency) test were administered in the first session to evaluate their English proficiency. The maximum score was 50 points, and their results were as follows: A:40, B: 28, C:24, D:24, E:22, F:35. <br />
To ensure that all learners would feel comfortable using the computers, practice sessions were conducted before data collection began. Therefore, the first topic in the debate was omitted from the data analysis of this research. The participants were paired throughout the sessions according to their schedule availability. <br />
The following six propositions were used for the debates <br />
<ul><li>Cellular phones use should be banned in public places.</li>
<li>English should not be included in the entrance examination.</li>
<li>English should be taught in every primary school.</li>
<li>Telephone is better than e-mail.</li>
<li>Juku (cram schools) should be abolished.</li>
<li>Campus should be downtown.</li>
</ul><br />
All the participants were given the propositions in advance and they also knew which side (affirmative or negative) they had to take. They were required to prepare their opinions as constructive arguments for each proposition in English. In the session, twenty minutes were allotted for writing the constructive arguments on the BBS. The first rebuttal argument was always started from the con side, but in the first few sessions, the participants were confused and did not follow the rule. After posting their constructive arguments, they started exchanging their rebuttal arguments for about 50 to 60 minutes. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Interface on the web site</h3>I developed the original interface using a web, as shown in Figure 2. The web browser displays three windows. The left window shows the information which helps the participants construct their opinions. In the right window, the BBS, the participants post their messages. The top window shows several icons, each of which is linked to an on-line dictionary, word lists and useful expressions for debates, and search engines. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/figure2.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Figure 2. Original interface</span> </div><br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Use of on-line scaffoldings</h3>In this research three on-line “scaffolding” devices were prepared to facilitate the interaction. The idea of scaffolding is often referred to by educational psychologists who advocate Vygotskyan approaches to learning and teaching. This approach is concerned with learning in which a social interaction between an expert and a novice takes place. In this situation an expert or a teacher first jointly do most of the tasks with the child. Gradually, however, the child becomes able to handle the tasks on his own and the teacher's temporary supports are removed until they are no longer necessary. The supportive action by the teacher is called “scaffolding” (Newman, Griffin and Cole, 1989). I assumed the on-line devices I designed on the web page would support the participants to do the tasks and would be less frequently used when they became more competent debaters. The devices included a list of useful expressions for debates, glossaries and an on-line dictionary. <br />
A collection of useful expressions for the debate could be accessed from one of the icons allotted at the top of the window. Some basic and frequently used expressions for debating were listed and the participants were able to organize effective text structures by making use of them. Moreover, using useful expressions seemed to help to make a natural flow of argument. <br />
Next, I will explain how the on-line dictionary was used by the participants. The on-line dictionary is a very strong tool for language learners. One of the advantages of using an on-line dictionary is that an entry found in the Japanese-English dictionary can be instantly switched into the English-Japanese one. With this process we can check whether the English word found in the dictionary is equivalent to the Japanese counterpart. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Data analysis</h3>The data was analyzed focusing on the interactions based on the “Interaction Analysis Model” by Gunawardena, et al. (1997). <br />
<div class="paragraph"> <h4>A) Inter-rater reliability</h4>To analyze the interaction qualitatively, two raters independently evaluated every log posted in the BBS based on the “Interaction Analysis Model” by Gunawardena et al. Both raters had extensive experience in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in Japan and understood the “Interaction Analysis Model”. The inter-rater reliability was calculated by coefficient reliability (CR) by Holsti (1969, cited in Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 2001) and kappa (κ) by Cohen (1960). <br />
CR is a percent-agreement measure in which the number of agreements between the first rater and the second rater are divided by the total number of coding decisions. Cohen's kappa is a chance-corrected measure of inter-rater reliability using a computational procedure. The results of the CR of three dyads were .88, .92 and .92 respectively, indicating a high level of agreement between the raters. <br />
In addition to the CR, Cohen's kappa was calculated. According to Cohen, high reliability should range between .80 and .90. The results of kappa were .84, .85 and .81, which indicate a high level of agreement between the raters. (See Appendix 2<a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note2"><span class="sup">2</span></a>) <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>B) Number of each phase</h4>Since the interaction analysis is a nominal evaluation whose characteristics are descriptive and qualitative, there were some debate logs in which it was hard to reach agreement between the two raters. Raters discussed these logs at length until the disagreements were resolved. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/table1.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Table 1: Numbers of total messages in each phase by each dyad</span> </div><br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/table2.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Table 2: Numbers of Phase III by each dyad</span> </div><br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/figure3.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Figure 3: Total numbers of messages in each phase by each dyad</span> </div><br />
The number of each phase by each dyad is shown in Table 1 and Figure 3. All the constructive arguments were classified into Phase I, and most of the arguments in rebuttal sessions belonged to Phase II, where cognitive dissonance or inconsistencies among ideas were expressed. The debate format seemed to hinder participants from arriving at a compromise or synthesis, but some arguments were able to be classified into Phase III where participants changed their understandings or constNucted new knowledge as a result of interaction. The number of Phase III by each dyad is shown in Table 2. This issue will be dealt with later. <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Proposition and development of argument</h3>Unlike ordinary face-to-face debates, about 45% of the constructive arguments posted at the beginning of the debates did not develop into further arguments. For example, in one of the games, the affirmative side posted four constructive arguments but the pair argued only one of them. One of the factors which constrained the on-line debate is time. Fifty to sixty minutes is not enough for the participants to exchange their messages. This clearly restricted the expansion of argument, and, as a result, only a few constructive arguments were developed into a debate. <br />
Another characteristic of our on-line debates which contrasts with ordinary face-to-face debates is that some messages exchanged are classified as Phase III, which is “the compromise or synthesis of the proposition”. In an ordinary debate it is difficult to reach a compromise or a synthesis on the propositions because either side has to present a more convincing argument to win the debate game. However, our data shows new ideas and compromised views emerged in Phase III as a result of social interaction. <br />
By analyzing two debate logs I will examine how knowledge is co-constructed through social interaction. In the following analyses, the English language used by the students has been altered a little for clarity, but not to the extent that the intention of the contributor is changed. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Analysis of debate logs</h3><div class="paragraph"> <h4>A) Telephone is better than e-mail. (A vs B) (See Appendix 3)</h4>Both the affirmative and negative sides posted three constructive arguments. Each is classified as Phase I, i.e., “<span class="italic">Sharing/comparing of information</span>.” The affirmative side supported the argument and posted three constructive arguments, which were: (1) People can directly understand the feeling of the people on the other side, (2) It is sometimes uncertain whether or not the addressee has received e-mails, and (3) E-mail causes misunderstandings. <br />
The negative side posted three constructive arguments as well, which were: (1) People need not worry about the other party, (2) Words can be chosen more carefully using e-mail, and (3) E-mail is cheaper than the telephone. <br />
Within these six constructive postings the argument was developed around one posted by the affirmative side: “People can directly understand the feeling of those on the other side.” The first posting from the negative side [043]<a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/fujiike.html#note4"><span class="sup">4</span></a> was “We also express our feelings by sending e-mail”, which was judged as operation A, Phase II “<span class="italic">Identifying and stating areas of disagreement</span>”. From [043] to [045] both sides exchanged messages, which were all judged as “Phase II/A” messages, claiming strengths of the telephone and e-mail. In [046] the affirmative side wrote “Yours is an irrelevant argument. Get back to the main point.” Here the affirmative side controlled the flow of the discourse. The negative side agreed and the argument progressed at the pace of the affirmative side. The affirmative side gave a further argument, “In case of an emergency, would you still want to use e-mail [048]?”, which is classified as “Phase II/B”, “<span class="italic">Asking and answering questions to clarify the source and extent of disagreement</span>.” After this posting until [051], both sides argued which medium was more useful or efficient in the case of emergency and all the arguments were judged as Phase II. Then, they went back to one of the arguments, “Which is more affordable?” The affirmative side agreed that the debater accept it as the fact and she seemed to have no intention to argue further about money matters. In [052] she put, “It's true. E-mail is cheaper but when you have many things to talk about, telephone is better [Phase II/A].” In conclusion she added, “Mail can't work in the case of an emergency.” The affirmative side ended up this argument by claiming, “Mail and telephone have their own roles [052].” The argument stopped here but this statement could be accepted by negative side because in the process of argument both sides seemed to have noticed that both e-mail and telephone have their advantages and disadvantages. This is classified as “Phase III”; “<span class="italic">Negotiation of meaning/co-construction of knowledge</span>.” In this case it is operation D which is “<span class="italic">Proposal and negotiation of new statements embodying compromise, co-construction</span>.” After exchanging their arguments several times, one debater reached the stage of “Phase III”. The message implies that a good discussion about telephone and e-mail could not be held unless the roles of each medium are understood. In an ordinary oral debate this process should be avoided because it is less convincing to propose a compromised argument, but we could say that the participants tried to transform the argument so that they could have an “agreement” as a result of the interaction. We judged this as a co-construction of the new knowledge through social interaction. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>B) Telephone is better than e-mail. (C vs D) (See Appendix 4 )</h4>In this session the first messages posted by both sides included six constructive arguments in total [140, 141], which were all classified as “Phase I” i.e., “<span class="italic">Sharing/comparing of information</span>”. Throughout the session, however, one constructive argument posted from the affirmative side, “E-Mail causes misunderstanding [140]” was discussed. <br />
The negative side claimed that misunderstandings which happen in exchanging e-mail would be avoided by carefully choosing language [142], and that what was good about e-mail was that it is possible to express what can't be said on the phone without worrying about the language used [142]. The affirmative side showed disagreement, raising “junk e-mail” as a counter example. She implied that annoying e-mail was a result of communication in which the senders had never considered how their language irritated the receivers [143]. The negative side pointed out that the same thing happened by using telephone and if the price was cheaper they would definitely choose e-mail [144]. Again the affirmative side argued that we are more aware of the language when we talk on the phone, and that people are more irresponsible when they use e-mail [145]. These messages were classified as Phase II/A. After exchanging those arguments, Phase III: “<span class="italic">Negotiation of meaning/co-construction of knowledge</span>” Operation D: “<span class="italic">Proposal and negotiation of new statements embodying compromise, co-construction</span>” appeared in [147]. The affirmative side shifted attention from the issue of miscommunication to the nature of interpersonal communication, stating that if one cannot build a closer relationship without e-mail, then it is not a true friendship. To have good communication, one needs to be thoughtful of others with whom they are communicating. The student developed her idea further to argue that if someone gets used to communicating without thoughtfulness, they will not be able to communicate well. Although this argument was off the debate theme of “Telephone is better than mail”, participants started discussing what good communication was and they deepened their ideas as a result of the social interaction between the participants. This clearly showed that a series of arguments can be transformed from a specific and simple one of “which is better, A or B?” type question to a higher order problem such as “How should communication be carried out?” <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Discussion</h3>Here I would like to reconsider the value of debate for pedagogical use. Debates, by their nature, allow participants to have different points of view, which facilitate active interactions between the debaters. This study was able to confirm that not only conflicts of opinions occurred, but also compromise (i.e., co-construction of knowledge) during on-line dEbate sessions. While persuading others who had different viewpoints, the participants learned how to better organize their ideas by externalizing and reflecting on their thoughts by the use of the BBS. <br />
The existence of other people served to deepen their understandings and they were able to become much more competent debaters. From such points of view, I can say that debate is a very effective activity for pedagogical purposes. <br />
What the traditional debate format hindered was the desire of the participants to reach a compromise or a synthesis of the propositions (Gunawardena, et al., 1997), but this research shows that in some sessions the participants were able to reach a compromise and synthesis of the different positions. Although there were few, some messages were evaluated as Phase IIIs, in which participants constructed knowledge collaboratively. <br />
As the analysis of the session on “Which is better, telephone or e-mail?” shows, the participants discussed the strengths of each medium, and their arguments developed into the issue of the fundamental nature of communication. One participant claimed, “E-mail and telephone have their own roles”. This argument might be evaluated as indecisive and weak in traditional debate. However, when we observed it from the social constructivism viewpoint, the argument could be considered to have deepened the argument. That is, the participants might have felt uncomfortable about the way they debated the topic and have been aware that they should have been more specific, so that more constructive arguments could be generated. <br />
The analysis of online debates in this study yielded significant implications on the use of debate for pedagogical purposes. In the traditional face-to-face debates, highly evaluated aspects of the participant's behaviors have been, for example, “logic”, “analysis”, “argument”, “evidence”, “delivery”, and “questions and answers”. As far as evaluation is concerned, educational debates in the English classroom are still being carried out using these criteria mentioned above. According to Matsumoto (2001), however, this judging system disappeared in the early 1970s in the field of formal debating in Japan. Here I would like to propose how debate, including on-line debate, should be evaluated in the classroom. In this study I evaluated the interaction using three criteria, which were: quantity, persuasiveness and organization. The participants were informed of those criteria beforehand. We believe that it is necessary to decide the winners or losers to enhance the participants' motivation as is done in the traditional debate. <br />
Matsumoto (2001), discussing evaluation methods of the debate, claimed that rather than by using the criteria such as "delivery", and "questions and answers", the debates should be judged by comparing and examining the arguments each party posted, and the team which presents the most collaborative and constructive ideas in the very last session wins. That is, to make the interaction more collaborative, we should rate the performance based on the presentation of new and better ideas, new constructed knowledge, or showing the solution of the problem. All of these contribute to co-construction of meaning. This decision making process makes the debate not just a fun game, but a true problem solving task and encourages participants to become more competent debaters. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Conclusion</h3>The most important aspect of this study has been a qualitative analysis of the CMC interaction. The analyses were made how the Japanese NNSs of English at college level interacted with each other and how they collaboratively constructed knowledge. <br />
The analyses indicated that the co-construction of knowledge through social interaction occurred during the sessions, and that on-line debate was an excellent medium for generating “Phase II” arguments; expressing cognitive dissonance or inconsistency among ideas. Although the debate format did seem to hinder the participants from arriving at compromise or a synthesis of ideas, some “Phase III” arguments expressing co-construction of knowledge appeared. Therefore, it would be interesting to utilize Gunawardena et al.'s model to analyze different types of CMC formats such as e-mail exchanges and computer assisted classroom discussions to determine if they support or hinder the co-construction of knowledge through social negotiation. <br />
This research was conducted with only small groups of participants (N=6), and all of them knew each other. As a result, further research is needed to examine the effects of other interactional variables, including how participants exchange their opinions in a larger scale situation, such as overseas teleconferences. Finally, further research into NS-NNS interactions in a similar forum would be valuable. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Author</h3>Teruo Fujiike is a Japanese teacher of English at Akashi Senior High School in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. He received his Master's degree in school education from Hyogo University of Teacher Education. His research interests are in Internet-based language learning in the classroom and on-line discourse analysis. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Notes</h3><div id="note1">Note 1: This study derives from my Master of school education thesis presented to Hyogo University of Teacher Education in 2002. (Fujiike, 2002)</div><div id="note2">Note 2: In order to maintain the confidentiality of participants, they are identified by one alphabetical letter from A to F.</div><div id="note3">Note 3: The first coder's decisions are read horizontally and the second coder's decisions are read vertically. Numbers on the diagonal indicate agreement between the coders. Numbers off the diagonal indicate disagreement. The disagreements between two raters were worked out through discussion until agreement was met.</div><div id="note4">Note 4: The head of each message indicates the followings: “[041]”: The first digit “0” refer to Dyad A, “1” to Dyad B and “2” to Dyad C. The other two digits means a serial number of the messages posted between the pairs. “Con:B” represents that a contributor B is on the negative side. “Pro: A” represents that a contributor A is on the affirmative side. “2002/06/20 16:50”: Date and Time.</div></div><div class="reference"> <h3>References</h3><ul><li>Beauvois, M.H. (1992). Computer-Assisted Classroom Discussion in the Foreign Language Classroom: Conversation in Slow Motion. <span class="italic">Foreign Language Annals</span>, 25, 455-464.</li>
<li>Chun, D. (1994). Using computer networking to facilitate the acquisition of interactive competence. <span class="italic">System</span>, 22, 17-31.</li>
<li>Cohen, Jacob. (1960). Coefficient of Agreement For Nominal Scales. <span class="italic">Educational and Psychological Measurement</span>, 10(1), 37-46.</li>
<li>Cononelos, T., & Oliva, M. (1993). Using computer networks to enhance foreign language/culture education. <span class="italic">Foreign Language Annals</span>, 26, 527-534.</li>
<li>Garrison, D.R. (1991). Critical thinking and adult education: a conceptual model for developing critical thinking in adult learners. <span class="italic">International Journal of Lifelong Education</span>, 10, 287-303.</li>
<li>Garrison, D.R., T. Anderson, W. Archer. (2001). Critical Thinking, Cognitive Presence, and Computer Conferencing in Distance Education. <span class="italic">The American Journal of Distance Education</span>, 15, 7-23.</li>
<li>Gunawardena, Charlotte N., Lowe, Constance A., Anderson, Terry. (1997). Analysis of a Global Online Debate and the Development of an Interaction Analysis Model for Examining Social construction of knowledge in Computer Conferencing. <span class="italic">Educational Computing Research 17, 397-431. </span></li>
<li>Henri, F. (1991). Computer Conferencing and Content Analysis In Kaye, A. (Ed.) <span class="italic">Collaborative Learning through Computer Conferencing: The Najaden papers</span>. London: Springer-Verlag, 117-136.</li>
<li>Holsti, O. (1969). <span class="italic">Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities</span>. Don Mills, ON: Addison-Wesley. </li>
<li>Kelm, O. (1992). The use of synchronous computer networks in second language instruction: A preliminary report. <span class="italic">Foreign Language Annals</span>, 25, 441-454.</li>
<li>Kern, R. (1995). Restructuring Classroom Interaction with Networked Computers: Effects on Quantity and Characteristics of Language Production. <span class="italic">The Modern Language Journal</span>, 79, 457-476.</li>
<li>Kitade, K. (2000). L2 Learners' Discourse and SLA Theories in CMC: Collaborative Interaction in Internet Chat. <span class="italic">Computer Assisted Language Learning</span>. 13(2), 143-166.</li>
<li>Lee, L. (2002). Enhancing Learners' Communication Skills through Synchronous Electronic Interaction and Task-Based Instruction. <span class="italic">Foreign Language Annals</span>, 35, 16-23.</li>
<li>Lightbown, P., & Pienemann, M. (1993). Comments on Stephen D. Krashen's teaching issues: Formal grammar instruction. <span class="italic">TESOL Quarterly</span>, 27, 717-722.</li>
<li>Matsumoto, S. (2001). Dibeito Kyouiku no Mokuteki to Hohoron o Saiko Suru?: Online. Internet. 5 Oct. 2002. Available URL: <a href="http://coe-sun.kuis.ac.jp/coe/public/paper/outside/matsumoto3.pdf" target="_blank">http://coe-sun.kuis.ac.jp/coe/public/paper/outside/matsumoto3.pdf</a></li>
<li>Newman, D.R., B. Webb, and C. Cochrane. (1995). A Content Analysis Method to Measure Critical Thinking in Face-to-face and Computer Supported Group Learning, <span class="italic">Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century</span>, 3(2), 56-77.</li>
<li>Newman, D., Griffin, P., and Cole, M. (1989) <span class="italic">The construction zone: Working for cognitive change in school</span>. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.</li>
<li>Pellettieri, J. (2000). Negotiation in cyberspace: The role of chatting in the development of grammatical competence. <span class="italic">Network-based Language Teaching: Concepts and Practice</span>. Eds. Warschauer, M., and R. Kern. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 59-86</li>
<li>Toyoda E. (2002). Categorization of Text Chat Communication Between Learners and Native Speakers of Japanese." <span class="italic">Language Learning & Technology</span>, 6, 82-99.</li>
<li>Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). <span class="italic">Mind in Society</span>. Harvard University Press. </li>
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</ul></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Appendix 1: Interaction Analysis Model (Gunawardena, et al., 1997)</h3>PHASE I: SHARING/COMPARING OF INFORMATION. Stage one operations include: <br />
<ol type="A"><li>A statement of observation or opinion [PhI/A]</li>
<li>A statement of agreement from one or more other participants [PhI/B] </li>
<li>Corroborating examples provided by one or more participants [PhI/C]</li>
<li>Asking and answering questions to clarify details of statements [PhI/D]</li>
<li>Definition, description, or identification of a problem [PhI/E]</li>
</ol><br />
PHASE II: THE DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION OF DISSONANCE OR INCONSISTENCY AMONG IDEAS, CONCEPTS OR STATEMENTS. (This is the operation at the group level of what Festinger calls cognitive dissonance, defined as an inconsistency between a new observation and the learner's existing framework of knowledge and thinking skills.) Operations which occur at this stage include. <br />
<ol type="A"><li>Identifying and stating areas of disagreement [PhII/A]</li>
<li>Asking and answering questions to clarify the source and extent of disagreement [PhII/B] </li>
<li>Restating the participant's position, and possibly advancing arguments or considerations in its support by references to the participant's experience, literature, formal data collected, or proposal ofrelevant metaphor or analogy to illustrate point of view. [PhII/C] </li>
</ol><br />
PHASE III: NEGOTATION OF MEANING/CO-CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE <br />
<ol type="A"><li>Negotiation or clarification of the meaning of terms [PhIII/A]</li>
<li>Negotiation of the relative weight to be assigned to types of argument [PhIII/B] </li>
<li>Identification of areas of agreement or overlap among conflicting concepts [PhIII/C]</li>
<li>Proposal and negotiation of new statements embodying compromise, co-construction [PhIII/D]</li>
<li>Proposal of integrating or accommodating metaphors or analogies [PhIII/E]</li>
</ol><br />
PHASE IV: TESTING AND MODIFICATION OF PROPOSED SYNTHESIS OR CO-CONSTRUCTION <br />
<ol type="A"><li>Testing the proposed synthesis against "received fact" as shared by the participants and/or their culture [PhIV/A] </li>
<li>Testing against existing cognitive schema [PhIV/B]</li>
<li>Testing against personal experience [PhIV/C]</li>
<li>Testing against formal data collected [PhIV/D]</li>
<li>Testing against contradictory testimony in the literature [PhIV/E] </li>
</ol><br />
PHASE V: AGREEMENT STATEMENT(S)/APPLICATIONS OF NEWLY-CONSTRUCTED MEANING <br />
<ol type="A"><li>Summarization of agreements(s) [PhV/A]</li>
<li>Applications of new knowledge [PhV/B]</li>
<li>Metacognitive statements by the participants illustrating their understanding that their knowledge or ways of thinking(cognitive schema) have changed as a result of the conference interaction [PhV/C]</li>
</ol><br />
Interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. <br />
</div><h3>Appendix 2</h3><div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/appendix2.jpg" /> </div><h3>Appendix 3</h3><div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/appendix3.jpg" /> </div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Appendix 4</h3><div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-2/figure-fujiike/appendix4.jpg" /> </div><div class="img"><br />
</div><div class="img">source: http://callej.org/</div></div><div class="copyright"> Copyright (c) 2004- Teruo Fujiike & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X). All rights reserved. </div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-45456409043938505982011-12-03T17:53:00.004-08:002011-12-03T17:53:55.923-08:00Cognitive Skills in Translating: Creating a web-based learning activity<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Cognitive Skills in Translating: Creating a web-based learning activity </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online</li>
<li>Vol. 5, No. 1, June 2003</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"> <h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"> <ul><li>Brian McCarthy</li>
<li><a href="mailto:brianm@uow.edu.au">brianm@uow.edu.au</a></li>
<li>University of Wollongong, Australia</li>
</ul></div><div class="article"> <div class="chapter"> Paper Presented at Horwood Language Centre, University of Melbourne, 3 December 2002 <br />
<span class="bold">Intended Audience:</span> K-12 teachers interested in using computers, language teachers <br />
<h3>Pedagogical Background</h3>Regardless of the approach on which their instruction has been based, once learners reach a certain level of proficiency in a foreign language, they become increasingly aware of the value of translation as a skill, a tool and an art. They also understand that it is one of many ways for themselves and others to gauge their ability to move across linguistic and cultural frontiers, and appreciate that it is a powerful catalyst for reflection on the nature of language systems. So, in spite of the virtually total eclipse of grammar-translation as the foundation of foreign language learning, translation has justifiably remained an integral part of many intermediate and advanced level courses. It is also the substance of courses aimed specifically at training bilingual speakers to become professional translators and interpreters. The conduct of a translation class, however, provides both teacher and learner with numerous challenges.<br />
Students need to be given adequate opportunity to produce translations which will be evaluated by experts. Practice is an inescapable part of the process of becoming a proficient translator. Frequent encounters with points at which the two language systems diverge allow students to recognise them quickly and to develop reflex strategies for dealing with them. They also hone the complex and at times laborious skills associated with bilingual and monolingual dictionary use.<br />
Learners also need feedback. Typically, at university, a translation assignment is handed out to students one week, submitted the next, and returned in the third week. The delay between the time at which students are actually engaging in the act of translation and when they receive feedback on the success or otherwise of their efforts is problematic. A week or two after the event, students are not always inclined or able to spend time re-analysing the different pathways through a linguistic maze, delving into the complex interrelation of words and ideas within and across sentences, or focusing again on the subtle nuances that distinguish between the many solutions that present themselves for a given problem. If the translation passage is part of an assessment program, the single most important piece of feedback is usually the mark. Students have done the work, the mark is the reward, and all the reflection in the world is not going to alter that. They basically just want to get on with the next assessable task.<br />
From the point of view of the teacher there are other dilemmas. Firstly, no two student translations are the same. Each represents a unique combination of skills, strategies and inadequacies. Each script therefore requires a different set of feedback, and it would be possible to spend a great deal of time in fruitful discussion with every student, one-to-one. This is a task which very few teachers have either the opportunity or inclination to perform, and a luxury which very few institutions could afford. To convert the content of such discussion to written explanations would require considerably more time again. The problem increases in pBoportion to the number of translations students are given to help them master the art, and is exacerbated by the fact that even if written comments were tailored to each student's work, a great many of them would remain unread or undigested. And a lesson in which the teacher attempts to address the needs of every student, may actually meet those of none.<br />
There is also a need for objectivity in weighing up alternatives in translation. To discuss a passage which students have not made a serious attempt to translate can be a very worthwhile task, but there is no guarantee that they will be able to apply the fruits of the collective intellectual labour in performing subsequent translation tasks. However, to discuss a passage which students <u>have</u> made a serious attempt to translate generates a completely different set of problems, mainly of an affective nature. If a corrected translation is handed back to students along with a fair copy, they generally have little difficulty in accepting a situation in which their version, while different, has been deemed equivalent and acceptable by ’higher authority’ in the form of the teacher. It is a different matter, however, in cases where the student translation is signalled as deficient in some respect, particularly when the problem flagged is one of idiom, style or register, rather than grammar, syntax or spelling. Any teacher who has taught a translation class will probably be familiar with the ease with which what begins as a reasoned discussion can, unchecked, flare up into a heated and irrational bun fight once students begin to defend their efforts in relation to the model of a fair copy, and especially in relation to the efforts of their fellow students. Positions tend to be defended even more strongly when the direction of the translation is into the student's mother tongue. Any hint of correction can easily be taken as a slur on first- language proficiency, and the degree of offence taken tends to be proportional to the sense of ownership, which in turn is usually a function of the effort invested in the task. It is in fact very difficult, in the time frame typically associated with translation exercises, to establish the personal and temporal distance necessary for objective analysis. The principle of affective blindness can apply equally to teacher and student.<br />
This paper presents and analyses a web-based activity, ‘Translator Choice’, whose development represents an attempt to use information technology as a means of fostering the cognitive skills required by foreign-language students in their mastery of translation. It will look in turn at the ‘surface structure’ of the activity as encountered by the student, the teacher rationale, the data base on which an activity is constructed, and the returns for the effort and expertise invested by the teacher.<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Surface Structure</h3>There are two activities, ‘Select the Most Accurate Translation’ (or ‘Select One’) (see Fig. 1 for basic work screen), and ‘Rank the Translations’ (see Fig. 2 for basic work screen). Each activity can be done in practice or test mode. The alternative translations are displayed in random order each time the screen is presented. On completion of each activity students are awarded a score based on the degree to which their choice or ranking of translations corresponded with the teacher-preferred classification. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-1/figure-mccarthy/fig1.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Fig. 1 Basic work screen for ‘Select One’ activity</span> </div><br />
The mechanics of the student's interaction with the material is summarised in the instructions for the activity. <br />
<br />
<table><tbody>
<tr> <td> ‘Select One’ Instructions: <ul><li>In this activity you are presented with a segment of the passage followed by a set of suggested translations.</li>
<li>The translations vary in their accuracy.</li>
<li>Click on the translation you consider to be the most accurate. To change your selection, click on a different translation.</li>
<li>Once you are satisfied with your choice, click ‘Lock In My Answer’ to register your answer.</li>
<li>Once you have locked in your answer, you may wish to use the ‘Show Feedback’ button to explore the merits of the various translations.</li>
<li>Click ‘Next Segment’ to move to the next segment of the translation.</li>
<li>The ‘View your translation so far’ link allows you to see the current segment in the context of the whole passage at any stage of the activity. It also displays the text of the translation constructed through your choices to that point.</li>
</ul></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
By way of example, the following is the feedback available to a student considering the merits of the fourth-ranked translation: <br />
<div class="paragraph"> <span class="italic">According to some witnesses, the murderer, a young man, healthy, fair-haired, and built like a surfer,</span> <br />
</div>for the segment: <br />
<div class="paragraph"> <span class="italic">Selon des témoins, le tueur, un jeune homme blond portant la tenue d'un surfeur,</span> <br />
</div>in the passage ‘Tuerie en Tasmanie’. <br />
Feedback: <br />
<br />
<table><tbody>
<tr> <td nowrap="nowrap" valign="top"> <span class="italic">some witnesses:</span> </td> <td valign="top"> ‘selon des témoins’ means ‘according to witnesses’. Although it is possible for the French indefinite article ‘des’ to mean ‘some’ in English, to use ‘some’ here is overtranslation. It may be misleading, suggesting that other witnesses’ opinions differed. If the French had intended to emphasise ‘some’ in this context (i.e. to indicate a quantity), the word ‘quelques’ or ‘certains’ would have been used: ‘selon quelques témoins’, ‘selon certains témoins’. </td> </tr>
<tr> <td nowrap="nowrap" valign="top"> <span class="italic">murderer:</span> </td> <td valign="top"> ‘killer’ is a more appropriate term in this context. Killings tend to be random, but murder tends to pre-suppose a specific victim. </td> </tr>
<tr> <td nowrap="nowrap" valign="top"> <span class="italic">healthy:</span> </td> <td valign="top"> This is added information. The original doesn't indicate whether he is healthy or not. The probable source of this error is careless dictionary use. ‘portant’ here is used as the present participle of the verb ‘porter’ (to wear) – i.e. he was wearing surfie clothes. There is, however, a dictionary entry under ‘portant’ which includes the information: étre bien/mal portant – to be healthy or in good health/in poor health. </td> </tr>
<tr> <td nowrap="nowrap" valign="top"> <span class="italic">built like a surfer:</span> </td> <td valign="top"> The meaning of ‘la tenue’ here is ‘clothing’, and ‘portant la tenue d’un surfeur’ means ‘wearing surfer's clothes’ or ‘dressed like a surfie’. </td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/5-1/figure-mccarthy/fig2.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Fig. 2 Basic work screen for ‘Rank the Translations’ activity</span> </div><br />
<br />
<table class="waku"><tbody>
<tr> <td> Rank the Translations Instructions: <ul><li>In the ‘Rank the Translations: Practice’ activity you are presented with a segment of the passage followed by a set of suggested translations.</li>
<li>The translations vary in their accuracy.</li>
<li>Each of the translations is accompanied by a set of buttons.</li>
<li>Click on the buttons to grade the translations (1 = most accurate; highest number = least accurate)</li>
<li>All suggested translations must be given a ranking.</li>
<li>No two translations can be assigned the same ranking.</li>
<li>You may change your preferences at any time by clicking on another button in the same row.</li>
<li>Once you are satisfied with your choices, you may click “Lock In My Answer” to register your answers and either compare them with the Recommended Ranking or move directly to the Next Segment.</li>
<li>The ‘View Full Passage’ button allows you to see the current segment in the context of the whole passage at any stage of the activity.</li>
</ul></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Teacher rationale</h3>The ‘Translator Choice’ activity is not intended as a substitute for traditional translation exercises, but as a complement to them. It provides a new dimension by enabling learners to encounter and evaluate a range of translations of the same original text. In doing so it takes them beyond the frequently restricted and restrictive world of the apprentice translator, which is typically bounded by the keyboard (or pen and paper), reference material (grammars; dictionaries; comparable documents in the source and target language, web-based or printed), and the student's own intellectual resources. One of the criteria in selecting the variants displayed on the screen is that at some stage they have actually been produced by a genuine translator or would-be translator. And since the variants will seldom if ever have been generated by the students doing the activity, they are in a position to consider the various alternatives in a dispassionate manner, with no vested interest or personal pride to protect. In the case of practice activities they have the choice of working either individually or in small groups, where the final choice can be the result of discussion and negotiation with fellow students. <br />
The results of a preliminary on-paper trial of the exercise in class were of particular interest. The students, who had been given the passage as a translation exercise (part of a larger assignment) the previous year, were a subset of the group from whose written translations the 5 variants had been compiled. When their assignments had been handed back the previous year, accompanied by a fair copy, their reactions had been entirely consistent with that of other generations of students. The assertive or confident or desperate among them had used the corrections indicated on the returned assignments as a platform for launching a public justification of their choices, either in the hope of forcing some concession from the teacher that would result in an upward adjustment of their grade, or as a means sending some signal to their fellow students about the injustice of objective assessment (i.e. exact percentage scores, and any judgement of ‘right and wrong’) being applied to what they were, at least for the sake of that particular debate, choosing to represent as an art. (In that atmosphere the teacher sensed that the students would not have been entirely receptive to the observation that some findings claim that machine translation systems achieve, on average, about 65% as well as expert human translators (ANDERSON, D. 1995:68)) And the less assertive, regardless of the strength of their convictions or the amount of effort they had put into the task, had accepted the rulings of the authority figure, or at least chosen not to voice any disagreement with them. <br />
For the class activity students were divided into groups of 3 and given several consecutive segments of the passage, each accompanied by 5 alternative translations in random order. Students were asked to discuss the alternatives and rank them by accuracy. Virtually without exception their agreed rankings corresponded with those of the teacher. And the fact that none of the students identified personally with any of the variants they were evaluating meant that all justification of choices and deference or concession to the opinions of fellow students was based on linguistic rather than affective premises. <br />
By removing the pencil, paper and reference book components, the web-based activity allows student to focus exclusively on meaning and expression. And it is infinitely less awkward to administer than its on-paper predecessor. To reach a decision requires students to weigh each variant up against the original text and each of the alternatives, and to look at both the detail of the individual semantic units, and the structure and style of the segment as a whole. Students are encouraged to consult dictionaries and other reference materials in the process. At the cognitive level it is in many respects a more demanding task than the production of a single translation, since implied in the process is the need for students to have formed their own clear idea of the meaning of the original. They must then proceed to weigh it up against the set of alternatives, some of which will be more accurate and complete expressions of that meaning than their own version, some less. And given that students are aware that they have only to recognise, rather than produce, an exemplary translation, they sense that their chances of scoring well are higher. The relationship between the activity and conventional translation is similar to that between listening comprehension and speaking, or reading comprehension and writing. <br />
In the ‘Select One’ practice activity students have access to a comprehensive bank of feedback for each translation variant. Workload constraints have previously prevented the author from ever even considering this luxury for his students in 30 years of teaching. <br />
In addition to providing students with a different angle from which to view translation, the computer-managed activities allow the teacher to be confident that students are devoting a certain amount of time to the task without the need for personal supervision or presence in a single classroom. This in turn allows the teacher to focus on other matters during formal class hours. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Data Input</h3>The creation of an activity is essentially an extension of a conventional class translation exercise. <br />
In addition to selecting a passage appropriate to the academic level and professional orientation of the students, and grading their individual performances in that assignment, the teacher has to take the following steps: <br />
<ul><li>Divide the passage into a set of discrete sense units (segments). Segment boundaries tend to fall naturally at sentence boundaries, as sentences normally represent the expression of an independent unit of thought. In the case of complex sentences, there are usually natural cleavage points at which it is possible to split the discourse, thus preventing students from having to reflect on and compare unwieldy chunks of text on screen.</li>
<li>Using the full range of student translations generated from the class exercise, compile a set of 5 translations of each segment of varying degrees of accuracy and as fully representative as possible of the range problems and solutions associated with conveying the meaning of the original text in the target language.</li>
<li>For each alternative translation, compile feedback to explain each point at which it fails to accurately represent the meaning of the original.</li>
</ul><br />
A sample compilation of feedback for a single segment is provided in <a href="http://callej.org/journal/5-1/mccarthy.html#appendix">Appendix 1</a>. In this sample, the segment is coded G (it is the 6<sup>th</sup> segment of the passage), the 5 alternative translations, in order of accuracy, are coded G1-5, and feedback for each translation is coded using lower-case letters (e.g. G4a-d). Once prepared in this form, the data can easily be pasted into the template, and further modified if required (e.g. as a result of input from site users). <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Investments and Returns</h3>As data entry fields have been designed to accept and display both standard keyboard input and paste-in graphics, activities can be created for languages from the full spectrum of writing systems. And because the exercises generated are of a receptive and cognitive nature, there is no requirement for students to type in any data. This facet of the design eliminated any need for programmers to create open-ended, unpredictable and costly routines for checking infinitely variable data input by students. <br />
With regard to delivery (i.e. the electronic equivalent of preparing the worksheets handed out to students in the preliminary on-paper version), the computer does all the work, including randomising the display of choices and grading responses. As with any activity, IT-based or not, this exercise can only have the full desired influence on students' learning if it is thoroughly and formally integrated into a course structure and assessment procedures. <br />
Generation of the material is unquestionably painstaking, and the investment of effort and expertise on the part of the teacher in constructing the range of alternative translations and in preparing the feedback would simply not be justifiable for a single class. However, once it exists in electronic form, the activity becomes part of a bank of exercises that can be used by groups of students in other institutions nationally or internationally. Any exercise can be designated as either practice or test, and can be given an ‘active’ or ‘archived’ classification. By giving a teaching resource the capacity to transcend geographical and temporal boundaries, the web platform brings into play an economy of scale factor previously precluded from the individual teacher's equation for materials preparation. One exercise, if carefully constructed, can serve many classes in many institutions over many years. The web base also changes the balance of factors in the teacher-student equation, as it allows the intellectual resources and the time and energy spent in preparation by many teachers to be made available to small groups of students or even to individual learners. The potential scope and longevity of any activity, however, creates a commensurate responsibility on the part of those who manage it to ensure a high level of quality control. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Concluding Remarks</h3>The ‘Translator Choice’ site is not a panacea. It is, like the Transit-TIGER advanced technical translation materials developed by D. Thompson at the University of Hull, an aid in the training of students in translation that enlists the support of computers to manage processes and present information in ways not possible with traditional media in traditional classrooms. It can be used to enrich instruction, free up class time and administer assessable work in a specified time frame. <br />
The activities it generates allow students to achieve objectivity in their appraisal of translation alternatives, and to receive as much or as little feedback on the nature and sources of inaccuracy in those alternatives as they want or require. It is a tool for assembling and preserving resources and expertise in virtually any language, and for disseminating them to a scattered public and over many years. The reservoir of resources requires some management but little in the way of maintenance or ongoing commitment of funds. But like any such resource, it is only as rich as the academic content around which it is built. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Acknowledgements</h3>Professor Sharon Bell, Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of Wollongong, for her support and encouragement, and for her vital role in enabling the project. <br />
Mr Ray Stace, Manager, Educational Development Services, Centre for Educational Development and Interactive Resources (CEDIR), University of Wollongong, for his advice and patience in helping me frame the project in the idiom of IT. <br />
Mr David Elsner, Web Developer/Programmer, The Education Media Laboratory (emlab), Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, for dedicated and eager application of his skills to converting the specifications into a fully functional site. <br />
Mr Owen McKerrow, Web Developer/Programmer, The Education Media Laboratory (emlab), Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, for his skill in grasping concepts and specifications expressed by an IT layman and in overseeing their conversion into a Web-based reality. <br />
Mr Robert Wright, Project Director, The Education Media Laboratory (emlab), Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, for picking up the project and running with it. <br />
</div><div class="reference"> <h3>References</h3><ul><li>ANDERSON, Don D., ‘Machine Translation as a Tool in Second Langauge Learning’, CALICO Journal Vol. 13/1, p68 (1995), citing the results of the evaluation for the third quarter of WHITE, J.S. et al., ‘The ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) MT Evaluation Methodologies: Evolution, Lessons, and Future Approaches’, AMTA, 1994, 193-205.</li>
<li>THOMPSON, D. & J. Thompson, <span class="italic">‘Advanced (Technical) Translation (Italian/English): A Pilot</span> Project’, in Language Learning with Computers, An Educational Challenge, ed. Peter Baumgartner and Anthony Hall, WISL - Werkstatt für interkulturelles und soziales Lernen A - 9020 Klagenfurt, Austria, 1991, 160-173</li>
<li>THOMPSON, D. & J. Thompson, <span class="italic">TransIt, Advanced [Technical] Translation (Italian to English) Teacher's Manual</span>, Department of Italian, University of Hull, 1993 ISBN 085958 595 6</li>
<li>THOMPSON, J. ‘Embedding technology into language examinations: a case study’, in <span class="italic">Active Learning</span> ,4 (July 1996) 25-29</li>
</ul></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Author</h3>Brian McCarthy is an Associate Professor of French, Modern Languages Program. He was appointed to the University of Wollongong as a foundation lecturer in French in 1975. His academic qualifications include a BA with 1st class honours in French, a Master of Arts, a Diploma of Education and a Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics. In 1994, he received the Vice-Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching. He has been Head of the Modern Languages Program since 1999, the recipient of numerous research grants, and the author of half a dozen textbooks, over 40 research articles and 50 language-learning software modules. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3 id="appendix">Apendix</h3><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Appendix 1: Sample of segment data organised for entry into Web authoring template.</h4><br />
<table class="waku"><tbody>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">Nous tapions dessus à coups de bâtons, nous la poursuivions avec des pierres.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G1</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">We would beat it with sticks and pelt it with stones.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G2</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">We'd hit it with sticks and went after it with rocks.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G2a</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">we'd: This contracted form of ‘we would’ is too informal and conversational in the context (author narrating, not character speaking). Moreover, followed as it is in this translation by ‘and went after it’, ‘we'd’ could be considered ambiguous, as the same contraction can be used for ‘we had’.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G2b</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">went after it: The French uses the imperfect for both verbs (‘tapions’, ‘poursuivions’), and this indicates that both actions were routinely performed by the children. In this translation two different forms are used, the first ‘we'd hit’ represents the action as a past repeated one, the second ‘we went’ suggests that the second action may have been a one-off event. Suggested translation: ‘and (we would) go after it’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G3</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">We would beat her with sticks and we'd chase her with stones.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G3a</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">her: There is nothing to suggest that the animal was female. French grammar conventions require the form ‘la’ to used in ‘nous la poursuivions’ because the word ‘bête’ is grammmatically feminine. This does not necessarily imply that the word refers to a female: ‘un lion’, ‘un tigre’, and ‘un chien’ would all be described as ‘une bête’, so would ‘une chèvre’ and ‘une vache’. Suggested translation: ‘beat it with sticks’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G3b</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">we'd chase: This contracted form of ‘we would’ is too informal and conversational in the context (author narrating, not character speaking). Repetition of the auxiliary verb ‘would’ here places unnecessary emphasis on the repeated nature of the action. Even if this emphasis were justified stylistically, it would be very unusual to use two different forms (‘we would’ and ‘we'd’). Suggested translation: ‘We would beat… and chase…’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G4</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">We would strike it with blows from sticks, and aim for it with stones.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G4a</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">strike: This synonym for ‘hit’ or ‘beat’ has a slightly literary or technical connotation in the context, wherease the word ‘taper’ is relatively informal.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G4b</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">strike it with blows: This translation introduces a tautology (= ‘needless repetition of an idea, especially in other words in the immediate context’) for which there is no basis in the original.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G4c</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">sticks,: The comma is used after ‘bâtons’ in the original to separate the two ideas ‘nous tapions’ and ‘nous poursuivions’, thus presenting them as a list. This stylistic technique does not work well in English in this context, and this has been recognised by the use of ‘and’ to separate the ideas in the translation. However, as the word ‘and’ replaces the comma of the original, the comma in the translation after ‘sticks’ is redundant.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G4d</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">aim for it: Mistranslation. The word ‘poursuivre’ means ‘to pursue’, ‘to chase (after)’. The normal French equivalent of ‘aim (for)’ is ‘viser’.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G5</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">We were beating it with sticks, we continued with rocks.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G5a</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">were beating: The imperfect tense (‘nous tapions’) can convey two basic meanings in English: a past continuous action (=‘we were (in the process of) beating’), or a past repeated action (=‘we used to beat, we would beat’). In this context it clearly refer to a repeated action, i.e. something the children did regularly. Suggested translation: ‘we would beat’</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G5b</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">sticks,: The comma is used after ‘bâtons’ in the original to separate the two ideas ‘nous tapions’ and ‘nous poursuivions’, thus presenting them as a list. This stylistic technique does not work well in English in this context. It is standard practice to use the word ‘and’ instead of a comma.</td> </tr>
<tr> <td valign="top"><span class="bold">G5c</span></td> <td align="left" valign="top">we continued: (i) Mistranslation. The word ‘poursuivre’ can mean ‘to continue’ (e.g. poursuivre ses études = to continue one's studies). The principal meaning of the word, however, is ‘to pursue, to chase, to hunt down’, and this is clearly the meaning in this context. The children are hunting an animal. (ii) The ‘la’ of ‘nous la poursuivions’ has been omitted from the translation. (iii) The French uses the imperfect for both verbs (‘tapions’, ‘poursuivions’), and this indicates that both actions were routinely performed by the children. The form ‘we continued’ suggests that the second action may have been a one-off event. Suggested translation: ‘and we would go after it’<br />
<br />
source: http://callej.org/</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
</div></div></div><div class="copyright"> Copyright (c) 2003- Brian McCarthy & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X). All rights reserved. </div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-54328310264700371812011-12-03T17:53:00.000-08:002011-12-03T17:53:03.214-08:00Investment and Returns in CALL Development<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Investment and Returns in CALL Development </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online</li>
<li>Vol. 4, No. 2, January 2003</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"> <h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"> <ul><li>Brian McCarthy</li>
<li><a href="mailto:brianm@uow.edu.au">brianm@uow.edu.au</a></li>
<li>University of Wollongong, Australia</li>
</ul></div><div class="article"> <div class="chapter"> The ideas expressed in this paper are part of a stocktaking exercise at the end of a fertile decade of CALL software development prior to embarking on a fresh venture in the field. <br />
They relate to a practical facet of the development process that can all too easily be obscured by passion for the production of effective instructional materials, by fascination with the capabilities and dimensions of a new medium, and by the plain hard slogging involved in conception, design, content generation, trialling and project management. They also represent a challenge to teachers and academics, the author very much included, to be and to remain aware of productivity as factor in planning and development of their own projects, and in their assessment of others. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Perspectives on productivity</h3>It is very easy for the individual whose hands produced a particular item to develop a sense of total ownership, and to be oblivious to the fact that the artisan, the article and the tools are all part of a larger world. Outsiders generally have little difficulty in recognising that, no matter how much skill and professional pride a carpenter making a chair in a company workshop may take in the piece of furniture being created, others such as the supervisor, the manager, and the customer, will all view the workman, the craft and the product differently. In a 21<span class="sup">st</span>-century Australian university, academics no more function in a vacuum than does a carpenter in a company workshop, but, because of the intimate and absorbing relationship between the person, the knowledge, and the application of that knowledge, we academics, particularly in traditional Arts disciplines, can go for years without seriously considering how what we are doing fits into the broader picture. Ultimately, however, it is a wider community that establishes the relevance, assesses the merits, and determines the viability of the materials we produce. <br />
Academic developers of computer-based teaching materials thus stand to benefit from reflecting on the way what they are doing does or does not fit with the interests and concerns of other parties. This paper will look at similarities and differences in the perspectives of three key groups regularly involved in CALL development: teachers, academic institutions and commercial publishers. The position of each is group is considered in relation to the motivation for investment, the nature and extent of that investment, and the returns for that investment and consequent impact of those returns on further development. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Motivation to invest effort and resources</h3><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Teachers</span></h4>Teachers' interest in CALL may stem from a variety of factors working independently or in combination. <br />
<br />
<ul><li>A perception of specific learning needs in their students coupled with a sense that new technologies can stimulate learning by delivering information in fresh ways and by creating rich, flexible instructional processes and learning environments;</li>
<li>Awareness that computers increasingly represent an idiom with which the present generation of students is very much at ease;</li>
<li>A sense that teachers can play a unique role in recognising and selecting electronic information and resources that will be of most value to learners and in optimising their benefits by organising them, structuring activities, and integrating them into the syllabus;</li>
<li>A simple fascination with the technology;</li>
<li>A desire to improve learning because, in their vocation of teacher, they derive personal satisfaction from seeing students gain increasing mastery of a foreign language, because improved learning makes teaching easier, and because the process may generate job satisfaction in the form of encouraging feedback from students, colleagues or educational managers.</li>
</ul><br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Institutions</span></h4>To talk of an institution investing in CALL is a shorthand, depersonalised way of representing decisions regarding the allocation of research and development funds taken by committees of academics and senior management in response to priorities increasingly shaped by the policies and directions promulgated by federal bodies. A primary consideration in this process is the institution's desire to enhance its standing by attracting kudos, further funding, and additional students, and to forge links with business, industry, and other educational institutions. Although many such policies work against or ignore the interests of foreign language learning, some, such as internationalisation, technology enhanced instruction, competitive benchmarking, distance education, degree enhancement, or the need to maintain ‘unfashionable’ disciplines, can work in favour of foreign languages in general and of CALL in particular. Institutions may also be motivated by a deluded notion that technology-enhanced language learning will somehow deliver large unsupervised laboratories crammed for 18 hours a day with full fee paying foreign language students who emerge at the end of a 10-week course equipped to perform as interpreters for high-level trade delegations on sensitive missions to a range of European and Asian countries. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Commercial Publishers</span></h4>With very few exceptions, commercial publishers are motivated primarily by turning a profit. Their product saves teachers time and effort and provides them with a level and scope of expertise and materials beyond their individual capabilities. They can only take on projects that are sound financial investments. Ultimately, factors such as market size, image, fashion, novelty, and the fit between a project and the particular field in which the publisher has established expertise and market credentials can exert far more influence on the decisions taken than do matters such as editors' or directors' personal convictions about the general educational benefits of the material produced, or the desire to see students achieving. <br />
Of the three categories of ‘investor’, it is only the teacher whose motivation to expend time, effort, knowledge and resources derives directly from those who will actually be using the ‘product’ for their academic development. And it is only the teacher who is in regular one-to-one contact with them. <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Nature and extent of investment</h3><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Teachers</span></h4>The most significant input of the teacher-academic into any CALL venture is the conceptual component: awareness of the language system and learning process, identification of a need, recognition of a specific contribution to be made by technology in managing information and cognitive processes, formulation of a solution, and design of materials. Through lack of awareness or lack of interest, the value of the intellectual input often goes unrecognised by non-specialists - the institution's financial and human resources personnel, casual observers from business, industry or the broader community, and even colleagues in other disciplines. Yet this is the element that is crucial in determining the ultimate effectiveness of the material and that guards against gimmickry, tediousness, impracticality and irrelevance. It also serves as a quality-monitoring instrument throughout the development process. <br />
More visible and measurable are the investments of resources and time - time spent in design, gathering and organising data, supervision, liaison, trialling, management of resources, preparation of project submissions, and reporting. Teacher-academics, like workshop carpenters, regularly and justifiably make claims of the type “I did this” or “I spent X hours (or days) doing that”. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Institutions</span></h4>In paying for the employment of the individual with the skills to do the job, however, the institution has very clearly also made an investment. And it matters little whether the capacity to develop CALL materials was one of the original selection criteria. One must ask whether the teacher-developer would be producing the materials if they were not occupying the position funded by their employer. There are, then, layers of investment in most projects, and the nature of the investment at the various levels is fundamentally different. The institution does not actually produce the goods. Its role is one of sponsorship, support and facilitation. It pays for someone to put in time and effort, and hence also has a justifiable sense of ownership. It is often also the case that professional pride and academic dedication motivate teachers to put in many more hours than those they are actually paid for, or that, in matters of career advancement, institutions may not accord the same recognition to the development of teaching materials as they do to more purely academic pursuits. <br />
Questions relating to which party has made what investment frequently surface after the event, when it comes time to resolve issues of intellectual property and copyright. Regardless of whether institutions receive funding from government or private sources, it would appear that they, rather than the source body, are in a position to claim ownership of intellectual property generated by the resources they administer, and that they retain the right of first refusal when it comes to commercial exploitation. Foreign-language teaching materials, it happens, are seldom if ever seen as worthy of commercial exploitation by universities.Many areas of CALL lie out of the ambit of the purely commercial as they involve the conception, structuring and ongoing management of resources provided free of charge to teachers and students within an institution. This includes activities built around such things as email exchanges or chat sessions between foreign language students and native speakers, access to web sites with their unrivalled and ever-expanding capacity to supply print, audio and visual foreign language data, electronic distance-education set-ups, word processing, desktop publishing, concordancers, on-line dictionaries, and automatic translation sites. It is generally the institution that outlays the millions of dollars required to the purchase of the hardware and expertise, and to set the IT infrastructure in place, and it normally does so with little or no specific thought for any use that foreign language programs may make of it. It nevertheless can clearly justify its sense of ownership of any educational ‘product’, however incidental, generated using the resource. But when it comes to such ingredients as time, energy, expertise, inspiration, motivation, or the soliciting of funds for research or development, input is provided almost exclusively by the teacher. Material returns for such ventures would normally be generated by a fee for service (tuition, management), and would be unlikely to flow directly to the teacher personally. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Commercial Publishers</span></h4>The investment made by a commercial publisher is more clear-cut, as it is essentially a straight business arrangement. There are two classic scenarios. In the first, the author, using whatever resources are available, generates material to submit to a publisher. The publisher evaluates it and undertakes to assume the costs and responsibilities of publishing and distributing it on condition that the author agree to any editorial modifications deemed necessary by the publisher and accept as remuneration a stipulated royalty of perhaps 10 or 15%. The editorial modifications, often driven by considerations of a cosmetic or commercial rather than an academic nature, may well require the author to make further investments of time, effort, intellect and resources. The second, less common, scenario is of publishers commissioning a work from an individual or team. Under such an arrangement the publisher is strongly placed in setting parameters and in controlling scope, contents, approach and costs. A royalty arrangement with authors would apply on completion of the work. In many respects this model runs counter to the interests of the average teacher-developer. Firstly, the needs base that would normally prompt an individual teacher to develop CALL materials is most likely to be the classroom. In a country like Australia, foreign language classes are traditionally small, non-mainstream, low-priority in terms of government policy and funding, and taught using a kaleidoscope of approaches in a diverse array of institutions and conditions. Moreover, in the area of tertiary education in particular, the sum total of students nationally, even if they formed a homogeneous group, may not represent a sufficiently large market for many major publishers to invest in. As a result, authors may have to respond to the power of the publisher holding the purse strings and tailor materials to accommodate the requirements of much larger markets such as those of the UK, North America or Asia. There is a definite risk that the end product will be less well suited than the original to the group whose needs inspired it in the first place. <br />
In the world of foreign language teaching, publishers still invest primarily in books. By doing so they created material in a medium that is tangible, functional, totally portable, has universal currency, and is independent of electronics, hardware, software, and their frequently incompatible national standards. They thus eliminate many factors that might otherwise fragment the market or allow quick and easy electronic reproduction and breaches of copyright that are difficult to detect and costly to police - i.e. they protect the capacity of their investment to generate the return on which its publication is premised. For such investors software tends to be peripheral, closely tied to the print material (and therefore unlikely to be picked up and used, in part or in whole, as a freestanding resource by teachers following another text or methodology), and of secondary importance in the overall project. It is normally part of a large suite of materials that may include a student manual, a teacher's guide, a workbook or work sheets, audio cassettes, audio CDs, videos in one or more formats (PAL, NTSC), and private study CDs. The complexity and high production and distribution costs of such materials helps explain the publishers' need to control and protect their investment. <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Dividends and stimulus to progress</h3><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Commercial Publisher</span></h4>For the commercial publisher there is a one-to-one correlation between the financial success of a venture and continued commitment to it. This is why large-scale market research is indispensable in the planning stages, and it accounts for the relatively small number of full language-learning courses in the catalogues of even the biggest and most specialised publishers, the relative insignificance of CALL materials within those packages, and the pressure such publications can exert on small, peripheral dispensers of foreign language instruction to conform, or endeavour to conform, to the norms established by the countries or institutions whose students represent the bulk of their paying customers. There is also a sense in which a degree of obsolescence is commercially desirable. Textbooks are recyclable. If a school purchases a class set, it can serve for many years. Should a particular method lose favour with the public for whatever reason, it will be replaced by another (i.e. new sets will be purchased), generating greater returns than if the status quo had persisted, and publishers are always keen to demonstrate that they are able to supply the innovative or fashionable product, and to increase their market share. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4><span class="italic">Teachers and Institutions</span></h4>In cases where the teacher-academic's involvement with CALL is limited to a cost-neutral exploitation of resources and infrastructure made available to the establishment as a whole, universities and similar institutions are inclined to toleJate and even encourage the research and development activities of their staff, and to use any celebrity accruing from it to enhance their image and to attract support. But the days of institutional infatuation with technology for its own sake would appear to be in the past, and in cases where tangible and ongoing returns cannot be demonstrated for resources invested in CALL, institutions seem increasingly less disposed to dedicate resources to fund further ventures or even to maintain existing ones. Academics are thus more and more likely to be called on to provide some form of ‘market research’ to demonstrate the material, scholarly or educational benefits that will flow from any new project. <br />
Only an extremely small proportion of the teachers of a given foreign language ever produce wide-circulation textbooks. But virtually every teacher at some time or other uses their linguistic, pedagogical and technical skills to create resources in the hope of improving their students' learning outcomes. Occasionally these are computer-based. The more focused the project, the fewer resources it is likely to demand and the less susceptible it is to distortion by outside influences. As such projects do not represent commercial enterprises and are so small-time that they occur below the level of institutional consciousness, they are often little noticed. But they are really the ones that best illustrate the typical teacher-developer perspective on input (professional energy and personal intellectual commitment to the assignment) and dividends (improved teaching) in the creation of CALL materials. The lifespan of a textbook rarely exceeds 10 years. This obsolescence may be due to changes in theories and practices of language teaching, the relevance of images, themes or sociolinguistic elements, and, in the case of CALL elements, incompatibilities with new standards, platforms, operating systems, modes of delivery, or institutional preferences. In the case of print materials, visual aids, transparencies, audio recordings, or even creative board work, ongoing serviceability of a resource over the teacher's career can justify what may have seemed like an inordinately heavy personal investment at the time of initial production. The pace of change and the staggering diversity of hardware, software and concepts in the world of IT mean that it would be almost inconceivable for a computer-based aid created in 1970 or 1980 to still be in service post-2000. This capacity of external factors to make something materially obsolete when it is still pedagogically valid can create a sense of futility in teacher-developers, a feeling that the world of technology conspires to stifle their personal investment and commitment. Print materials are more or less constant. Teachers developing resources on that platform can devote all their energies to content and technique. IT however, being far from static, requires teacher-developers to keep pace with concepts and techniques that may well not come naturally to them, but which have been adopted because they offer some pedagogical advantage. In the end, however, individual teachers may end up, like commercial publishers, making sparing use of CALL, and disinclined to be adventurous with it. The investment they are guarding is different, but the end result of protecting it is similar. <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Concluding remarks</h3>In many traditional Humanities areas, to talk of productivity in the same breath as research and scholarship is viewed as a degrading commodification of knowledge. But in creating CALL materials one is not just configuring knowledge, one is also creating a device for dispensing it. If the dispenser takes 2 years to produce and is unusable 12 months later, the experience will act as a deterrent to further ventures in the field. In the same way as it makes little sense for educational institutions or commercial publishers to ignore the perspective of the teacher-academic, it is dangerous for the latter not to take account productivity during the planning process. <br />
Taking a realistic look at who will be able to benefit from teaching materials and for how long, and giving serious consideration to by-passing any processes or devices that have the capacity to reduce the lifespan or currency of the materials is far from wasted effort. It will benefit students by giving them a lasting resource. But more importantly, it will provide a platform on which to build realistic appraisals of the ongoing value of externally-produced materials, and it will do much to protect the teacher-developer from becoming jaded, embarrassed or frustrated by a sense of wasted effort in a climate where an increasingly higher institutional expectation of expertise is paralleled by a reduced tolerance of the process of learning through mistakes. <br />
<br />
source: http://callej.org/<br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Author</h3>Brian McCarthy is an Associate Professor of French, Modern Languages Program. He was appointed to the University of Wollongong as a foundation lecturer in French in 1975. His academic qualifications include a BA with 1st class honours in French, a Master of Arts, a Diploma of Education and a Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Linguistics. In 1994, he received the Vice-Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching. He has been Head of the Modern Languages Program since 1999, the recipient of numerous research grants, and the author of half a dozen textbooks, over 40 research articles and 50 language-learning software modules. <br />
</div></div><div class="copyright"> Copyright (c) 2003- Brian McCarthy & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X). All rights reserved. </div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-91845787925334892442011-12-03T17:52:00.003-08:002011-12-03T17:52:16.793-08:00Resisting Obsolescence in CALL1<h3 class="post-title entry-title"> Resisting Obsolescence in CALL1 </h3><div class="post-header"> </div><div class="journal"> <ul><li>ISSN 1442-438X</li>
<li>CALL-EJ Online</li>
<li>Vol. 3, No. 2, January 2002</li>
</ul></div><div class="title"> <h2><br />
</h2></div><div class="author"> <ul><li>Brian McCarthy</li>
<li><a href="mailto:brianm@uow.edu.au">brianm@uow.edu.au</a></li>
<li>University of Wollongong, Australia</li>
</ul></div><div class="article"> <div class="chapter"> <h3>Introduction</h3>Although rarely acknowledged, one of the greatest impediments to the design of CALL materials is that, after inspired vision, careful research and planning, hundreds or even thousands of hours of development effort, piloting, implementation, refinement, and the expenditure of resources in the form of hardware and materials and wages, the software produced ends up having a working life of only two or three years before fading into oblivion. Individual academics may be content to notch it all up to experience and quietly proceed to other paths or projects. However, when rapid obsolescence occurs repeatedly or on a large scale, it creates a situation in which the discrepancy between investment and output is conspicuously apparent. It can demotivate developers, erode institutional endorsement and funding potential, and create a strong counter-current to CALL software development. <br />
In order to better understand the nature of obsolescence and to consider its implications for future development projects, this paper reflects on the influence of the passage of time on a suite of CALL materials for French (see Fig. 1) whose design, production and ongoing use occupied the author and a colleague<span class="sup">2</span> for a decade. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/3-2/figure-mccarthy/img1.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Fig. 1: Suite of CALL materials for French developed at University of Wollongong, 1991-2000</span> </div><br />
The wide range of design, teaching, linguistic, theoretical and practical issues addressed in the development phase or arising in the course of implementation have been the subject of numerous research articles, the most significant of these being McCarthy 1994a, 1994b, 1994c, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001. <br />
There is a sense in which it is very gratifying to have been part of a long-term project that has produced insights and experience, and generated materials that have gained the recognition of colleagues and students. But increasingly discernible age in the software the project has created now often arouses a reaction of techno-ageism among members of the IT community. For the most part, the ‘wrinkles’ in this software stem from its <span class="italic">Hypercard</span> base. Disparaging remarks from casual onlookers not interacting with the materials on a day-to-day basis are of the ‘that must have outlived its usefulness by now’, ‘it's getting a bit long in the tooth’, ‘it's starting to show its age’ variety. The natural response is to indignantly dismiss such comments out of hand. The more reasonable one is to allow that there may be some truth to them, and to address frankly the possibility that the materials may indeed have passed their use-by date. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>What does ‘obsolete' mean?</h3>At one level, this is an easy question to answer. Typical dictionary definitions are ‘fallen into disuse’, ‘no longer in use’, ‘of a discarded type’ or ‘out of date’. <br />
Yet the relationship between continued use and obsolescence is not quite as simple as it might appear. For example, it could not be claimed that just because materials continue to be used, they are not obsolete, or that if materials can be considered out of date, their use should automatically be discontinued. Obsolescence may be real or perceived, and it is the product of a combination of circumstances. <br />
To persist in using an implement when a more effective one is available and affordable is not an offence punishable by law. Users will continue to achieve their objectives. Farmers using horses and ploughs can still prepare their fields and produce crops to meet their needs. They are, however, not competitive in the larger scene. This is obsolescence through conservatism, and can occur as a result of choice, indifference or ignorance. In the domain of CALL in university foreign language instruction, the consequences of this position would be lack of competitiveness with other institutions, and, for students, a relatively lower level of proficiency for effort invested. <br />
There are other scenarios. Obsolescence can be the result of disadvantage when lack of financial resources removes the possibility of acquiring more effective tools. It can also be circumstantial, when the old is used because the new cannot be accommodated – like a television set or a computer in a community without electricity. <br />
Clearly, if someone can attach the ‘long-in-the-tooth’ label to a piece of software, there must be some respects in which it can be deemed obsolete. In order to interpret the substance of the criticism, it would seem appropriate to reflect in turn on obsolescence in relation to the three fundamental facets of any CALL software: the Technology, the Language, and the Assistance to Learning. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Obsolescence and Technology</h3>The ever-shortening ‘technology cycle’ is a universally recognised phenomenon, and it is self-sustaining at both the conceptual and commercial levels. Technological developments conOtantly create faster, cleverer and more comprehensive ways of performing operations. It does not go without saying, however, that what these operations are achieving is either cleverer or more comprehensive. A direct wireless implant into the ear of a foreign language learner is of little use if it can do nothing more than present the subject with a loop recording of a bilingual dictionary. Neither does an advance in technology necessarily do anything to sustain the development or improve the quality of the content of what it is processing. On the strictly functional level, as long as an appliance is capable of processing the input, that input can continue to serve its original purpose. In the 1960s, for example, record players were still commonly produced to accept 7-inch, 10-inch and 12-inch discs, and operated at 33, 45 and 78 r.p.m. So, even though 78s were no longer manufactured, they were not entirely obsolete. They were just becoming that way. By 1990, new record players no longer offered the 78 r.p.m. option, so 78s were obsolete. Vinyl records are now nearing the end of a similar path. The capacity of the contents (e.g. the voice of Nellie Melba) to inspire the admiration of the connoisseur, however, has little or nothing to do with whether they are delivered by phonograph cylinder, 78 record, vinyl disc or CD. Neither will any development in technology make it possible to produce a new original recording of those contents. <br />
In the case of the Wollongong CALL materials, they will remain in the ‘old-fashioned’ rather than the ‘obsolete’ category as long as computers have the capacity to run the Hypercard application. It must nevertheless be acknowledged that a piece of software has a much greater potential to age than do techniques such as word processing, chat, or Web searches. A number of developments have already had a clear impact on Hypercard's working life. Processor speeds have increased one hundredfold. This is in most respects an advantage. Student complaints about slow response time, common in the early nineties when the software was run on Macintosh Classics, are a thing of the past. In some cases, however, the response time has outstripped the application, so that on MacOS 9 for example, exploring the ‘click-a-sound’ palette in the Spelling module can set in train irritating and apparently interminable repetitions of the one sound. There are other circumstances in which changes to management and priorities in the system inhibit response to instructions to play sound. System-governed redistribution of typed characters within a field can distort the on-screen display, which in turn interferes with the effectiveness of screen-based clicking operations. Updated font managers can cause font resources within a stack to be overridden, or the ID of a new font such as the cross-platform Ariel introduced in Macs to replace New York as the default font can clash with a stack-internal font (e.g. the font created to manage the graphic cues in the Reported Speech module). <br />
Overall, however, on the operational level, the impact on <span class="italic">Hypercard</span> of changes to Mac hardware and systems has been negligible. It is not possible to retest every facet of a very complex suite of software and implement design changes with each new system release. To attempt to do so would be absurdly costly in terms of time and resources. Economy of scale may make it worthwhile for developers to invest hundreds of millions of dollars into the production of a new version of <span class="italic">Game Boy</span>, but it militates against even the most modest efforts to have CALL materials for French of the type we have described keep pace with ever-quickening change, particularly in a country of 20 million people whose mother tongue is English and where the provision of tangible support for foreign language study is a long way from the top of the list of national priorities. There is, moreover, no guarantee that changes made in order to accommodate or take advantage of the idiosyncrasies of a new system will not stop those materials from runnning satisfactorily on an earlier system, thus creating a situation of software rendering hardware obsolete. <br />
In many respects it is what has <span class="u">not</span> happened that has had the most profound effect on <span class="italic">Hypercard</span> materials. <span class="italic">Hypercard</span> does not run on PC, neither is it a satisfactory application for networking. For a time there were encouraging signs of developments to make it possible to import <span class="italic">Hypercard</span> into <span class="italic">QuickTime</span>, which runs on both platforms. Disappointingly, this has not eventuated and, as a consequence, the currency of any software developed on Hypercard has been prevented from appreciating, and enthusiasm to continue to coin further materials in it dampened. Moreover, ‘Apple Computer is not endorsing or promoting the use of <span class="italic">HyperCard</span> as there is no company directive to do <span class="italic">HyperCard</span> under Mac OS X’.<span class="sup">3</span> <br />
While there are products such as Runtime Revolution and <span class="italic">MetaCard</span> which claim to be able to translate <span class="italic">HyperCard</span> (Macintosh OS) stacks into Windows OS stacks, there are serious overheads for small developers. An initial software licensing fee of approximately $US1,000, the possibility of additional annual fees, and the need for investment in appropriate hardware, all constitute a serious disincentive even to begin looking at the conversion. Additionally there are developmental overheads in converting multimedia resources: problems with fonts, sounds, images, screen size and layout and so on that need to be converted separately from the ‘stack’ conversion and then re-incorporated into the new versions of the stacks, as well as the lead time in the developer learning the new environment(s). <br />
If the pedagogical value of the software remains high, the unrestrained evolution in the domain of hardware can actually work in favour of any teacher not easily wounded by the shafts of technosnobbery or sarcasm. The dismissal of a piece of CALL software solely on the grounds of the ‘status’ or ‘look’ of the technology on which it has been constructed is simply another manifestation of the imperfect interface between the teacher-designer and the IT specialist that frequently manifests itself at the production stage. It is the learner and the teacher who are best placed to assess the merits of a piece of CALL software, not the technologist. If changing the software is impracticable and runs the risk of rendering hardware obsolete, and changing hardware is expensive and runs the risk of rendering the software obsolete, an obvious solution is to retain the combination that works best. If there is no better software and no better hardware for the job, then any ‘obsolescence’ exists only in the eye of the beholder. And given that an extraordinarily high proportion of discarded hardware is in good working order and costs very little to buy, this solution is also economically astute, is likely to have the support of budget-conscious administrators, and actually provides language teachers with an opportunity to expand use of the resource. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Obsolescence and Linguistic Content</h3>The change of language over time is a familiar phenomenon. The date of entry into the language of a word, or a particular usage of a word, is often recorded in dictionaries, and most dictionary users are familiar with the symbols used to indicate that a term has come to be considered old-fashioned or archaic. In theory, this factor has the potential to cause language-learning materials to date. In reality, its impact is slight. In spite of dramatic changes in the nature of foreign language teaching materials over the past half century, very little has changed at the level of basic vocabulary and grammar. This can be illustrated by examining a passage such as the following from Lamport-Smith (1935: 46-47), a reader that was still in use in junior secondary French classes in New South Wales secondary schools well into the 1950s. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/3-2/figure-mccarthy/img2.jpg" /> </div><br />
The scene created here is indisputably a period piece, and this is reflected in the extremely dated picture accompanying the passage in the textbook (Fig. 2). The individual lexical items, however, even manivelle, torréfacteur, bougie, amidon and bonne, are all in common usage in 2001, though perhaps with modified connotations. A secondary message here, which applies to software designers as much as to the authors and publishers of print materials, is that graphics, and particularly photographs of daily life, have a far greater capacity than words to cause materials to appear outmoded. <br />
<br />
<div class="img"> <img src="http://callej.org/journal/3-2/figure-mccarthy/img3.jpg" /> <span class="caption">Fig. 2: Illustration by Ferdinand Raffin, accompanying the passage ‘Chez l'Epicier’ in <span class="italic">Le français par l'image</span> , L. Lamport-Smith (1935: 46)</span> </div><br />
In many areas of language there is evidence of a ‘survival of the fittest’ or a ‘strength in numbers’principle whereby the closer a word is to the core of the system, and the more frequently it is used, the more resistant it is to change. For example, although the most commonly used verbs are the most irregular, they are the least likely ever to be regularised. This principle has also served as an anti-ageing force for the software in question in several respects. A conscious decision was taken at the design stage to make the materials text-book independent. The structural and functional grammar points covered in the various modules were chosen because they were common to a large, methodologically diverse range of beginner French textbooks of the last 40 years. They are core language features and have wide currency. And since these points are dealt with at sentence level rather than as an inextricable part of a larger unit of discourse (text, audio, or audio-visual), they are far less susceptible to the ravages of time than, for example, a unit or work built around a digital video recording of authentic conversation between two secondary school children in a 1980s French schoolyard. However they may rate in the foreign-language teaching fashion stakes, communicatively minimalist activities such as straightforward verb conjugation (e.g. Verb Kit and Verb Tense Recognition modules) must be considered virtually ageless. <br />
Another design principle was, wherever possible, to use vocabulary appropriate to the level of difficulty of the grammar point. Because most of the grammar is elementary, most of the vocabulary is that of ‘le français fondamental’, i.e. it is ‘core’ vocabulary, and on the ‘survival of the fittest’ principle, little affected by the passage of time. <br />
is a minor point of grammar. Within the Adjectives module, a small well of items was created for invariable adjectives. It included the word ‘sympa’ which is defined in the 1990 edition of ‘<span class="italic">Le Petit Robert</span>’ as ‘invariable adjective; first known use 1906; register: very familiar; meaning: sympathique’. In the 2000 edition, the meaning and date of entry into the language are unchanged, but its register has shifted from ‘very familiar’ to ‘familiar’, and it has become a regularly declined adjective –8211; i.e. it now takes an ‘s’ in the plural. For the software to accommodate that change, the only action required is the deletion of a small number of items from the bank. <br />
In a corpus of some 22,000 items only two clear linguistic ‘wrinkles’ have appeared to date. The first <br />
The second ‘wrinkle’ is in fact a set of wrinkles. It has appeared in the news snippets (over 10,000 of them) from the Web on which the Future Tense, Relative Pronouns, Infinitive Government and Infinitives & Participles modules were constructed, and can be seen clearly in items such as: <br />
Shimon Peres s'est borné à remercier Yasser Arafat pour ‘ses efforts intenses pour amener nos deux peuples à la paix et à l'espoir’, mais il a également évoqué les difficultés [***] les deux parties avaient à ‘escalader les pentes glissantes’ de ces négociations. [que] <br />
Avant ce vote, [***] l'issue ne faisait d'ailleurs aucun doute, le Premier ministre avait été assuré du soutien du président de l'UDF, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing et celui du RPR, Jacques Chirac, deux autres présidentiables de la droite, sur son action gouvernementale. [dont] <br />
The grammar features covered in these modules, being of an intermediate rather than beginner level, are frequently couched in relatively sophisticated linguistic environments (vocabulary, syntax, grammar). They are consequently more likely to be affected by the principle of ‘the larger the unit of discourse, the higher the risk of ageing’ alluded to above. This risk was recognised at the design stage, but any negative impact it might have was considered to be far outweighed by the value of the linguistic authenticity of the press clips and of the wealth of cultural references they contained. <br />
‘Any collection of news and current affairs items creates a rich cultural backdrop containing a blend of social and political events that are of abiding significance because they had an impact on national or international affairs [European union, the war in ex-Yugoslavia, the end of apartheid in South Africa, the Rwanda tragedy, the Middle East, the 50th anniversary of the Normandy invasion, the TGV, the Channel Tunnel], and of everyday matters (sport, community, education, politics, crime, transport, religion, agriculture, town planning, industry, youth, lifestyle, human interestq¥E that are of perennial relevance - the names and places may vary, but the themes, newsworthiness and intrinsic cultural relevance are constant.’ (McCarthy 2000) <br />
This is one type of ageing that it is better to accept with dignity, given that the alternatives are far from satisfactory. Those alternatives include: renouncing any attempt to contextualise the grammar; updating or re-establishing the 9 million word corpus on a regular basis, scanning it for relevant examples, then updating the banks of items in each of the modules; or attempting to fabricate large banks of culturally pertinent but time-neutral items. <br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Obsolescence and Assistance to Learning</h3>From a purely educational point of view, the only compelling reason to abandon a resource is if it loses the capacity to serve in a particular teaching and learning environment. This situation may be the result of such diverse factors as disappearance of the supporting framework, lack of integration, loss of the power to stimulate learning, or superseding by improved materials. <br />
<div class="paragraph"> <h4>Curriculum Environment</h4>Teaching manuals and textbooks come and go in all disciplines, their life span being a function of changing needs, fashions and tastes, and of the evolution of educational theories and priorities. In the increasingly probable situation of DVD and/or CD ROM replacing paper as the platform for the delivery of comprehensive, structured courses, it will be possible for entire suites of computer-delivered materials to be discarded in the same way as their print-based predecessors. And as with abandoned textbooks, the only chance of survival of any particularly useful segment (e.g. a dialogue, a piece of realia, or a language exercise) will be as an item stored away in the electronic section of the resource cabinets of conscientious teachers. Current trends in foreign language teaching appear to be increasingly in the direction of eclecticism, and the primacy of the communicative aspects of language places a strong emphasis on the teacher as an organiser, an informant, and an intermediary between the learner and the material. In this environment, computer-based activities serve principally as adjuncts and supports. Their relative autonomy gives them the capacity to ‘float’ above change at other levels, provided that the hardware is available to run them. Technological support for software, however, is a far more complex, costly and unpredictable matter than it was for audio cassettes or even video tapes. <br />
Changes in student needs, reflected in curriculum change, can also marginalise any teaching materials, including software. It is very likely, however, that use of software that provides effective instruction in an independent learning environment will increase in the great majority of educational institutions, since its services are seen as a cost-efficient alternative to human resources. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Teacher Commitment</h4>The continued use of any effective teaching resource is also heavily dependent on the individual teacher's energy, enthusiasm, organisational skills, methodological convictions and continuing employment, and the importance of this human factor should not be unNerestimated. The only honest answer for the author to give to the not uncommon question: ‘What will happen to all this when you go?’ (well, the only one apart from the expression of surprise at the implication by insouciant and insensitive 18-year-old students that a teacher in his mid fifties is close to retirement or some other form of demise) is ‘That depends.’. In asking the question students are recognising the commitment required on the part of the teacher not only in the development of the materials, but in initiating each new cohort of students into its use, maintaining both the software and the machines, linking use of the materials to other facets of the course, and ensuring that the computer-based tasks are integrated into course assessment. In the case of the grammar modules at Wollongong, this integration involves: <br />
<br />
<ul><li>preparing and presenting handouts on the rationale behind CALL use;</li>
<li>preparing a schedule detailing the content of the various modules and students’ required level of achievement in numerous computer-based exercises (varying from 5 to 20, depending on the course);</li>
<li>emphasising and implementing the compulsory computer preparation;</li>
<li>preparing, posting and checking the sign-up sheets on which students indicate that they have completed the preparation;</li>
<li>where necessary (i.e. where there is any doubt that the information supplied by students on the sign-up sheet does not match their actual performance on the computers– e.g. in the early stages of first-year courses) checking the scores on all 15 computers in the private study laboratory;</li>
<li>keeping a record of the (fortunately very rare) students who fail to complete the computer preparation on time and ensuring that no result is declared at the end of session until the requirement has been met;</li>
<li>reproducing on-paper tests and administering them in an agreed timeslot out of normal lecture time (the tests, generated by the computer, correspond in scope and depth to the various compulsory preparation exercises completed by the students);</li>
<li>marking the on-paper tests and recording the marks.</li>
</ul><br />
Integration of the ‘En tête-à-tête’ cued speaking materials (with a class of 60 or more) involves: <br />
<ul><li>ensuring that students have encountered the necessary communicative situations, vocabulary and grammar in the course of lectures (through dialogue presentation, speaking activities, grammar presentation and homework exercises);</li>
<li>presenting the cues and responses to the class as a whole via overhead transparencies– usually 10 dialogues per session;</li>
<li>distributing sets of cards to the class for pair work (to set this activity up involved a one-off preparation and collation of over 20,000 slips of paper: 300 dialogues, 2 cue cards (1 for each speaker) per dialogue, 40 sets of cards);</li>
<li>supervising a class in which 60 or more students are engaged in a speaking activity simultaneously;</li>
<li>initiation of students to the CD ROM activity with full audio support which enables them to work on the material privately outside of class;</li>
<li>distribution of the full set of cues and responses, after they have been completed in class, as a take-home private study resource;</li>
<li>preparing, conducting and grading the cassette-based end-of-session oral examination by means of which student mastery of the speaking skills are assessed.</li>
</ul><br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Assessability</h4>University students are the first to acknowledge that if a task does not count in a significant way towards their end-of-semester grade its priority will always be sufficiently low for it to remain on the ‘things I must get around to’ list, no matter how potentially useful the resource or how genuine their interest in the subject. <br />
There is further evidence of this sobering reality in the fate of the bulk of the non-grammar activities (Fig. 1). Most of them deal with notions and speech functions (e.g. Personal Identification, Shopping, Weather, Date and Time) that are as basic and indispensable to communication as the grammar in the drill modules. They are far more sophisticated in design, incorporate sound and graphics, and are comprehensive, simple to use and stimulating. The flaw, which has made most of them inappropriate for use in the university environment in which they were produced, is that they are constructivist in character. There are no doubt many contexts in which this aspect would be considered a distinct plus. It is not hard, for example, to imagine them being used very creatively in a secondary school classroom where the system does more to foster, and students are more willing to engage in, learning activities for which the measure of success is personal satisfaction and an unquantified sense of achievement. The full suite of non-grammar learning activities is available on every computer in the private study laboratory, students are aware of their existence and know that their contents are relevant to their studies and have the potential to enhance their language skills, but they remain virtually unused. If disuse is obsolescence, then those materials are obsolete, and some of the main contributing factors have nothing to do with the computers, the language or the aid to learning. They are the result of external factors, such as class size (e.g. the first semester of 1<span class="sup">st</span>-year French, with over 60 independent and socio-culturally diverse students, is more than 2.5 times a big as the largest senior secondary school foreign language classes) and class time available to cover the syllabus (even in the best Australian university scenario of 6 hours class per week, students have only 30% of the face-to-face teaching their secondary school counterparts receive, and it is delivered over 26 teaching weeks in one academic year instead of between 200 and 240 weeks over 6 years). <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Labour and Cost</h4>One of the common base-level choices in CALL software design is whether to create a complete off-the-shelf activity whose contents cannot be modified, or a shell which gives teachers the freedom to import and amend the contents. The decision made at that point does not in itself determine whether the end product is educationally sound. But it may have an impact on its longevity. A fixed unit whose contents render it in some way inappropriate to a given instructional environment is likely to be of limited use and very susceptible to abandonment. But a shell, even one of outstanding quality in terms of the operations it allows, that requires regular or sustained effort on the part of the teacher to locate, import and maintain the contents, is probably doomed to a similar fate. This is a lesson that was learnt during the seventies and eighties in the era of the language laboratory whose demise was not principally the result of its functions having being superseded by computers with superior capacity for interactivity, multimedia operations and escape from linearity. Neither did it reflect the view that audio recording is not a good tool in foreign language instruction. By the time computers arrived on the scene a great many institutions were already referring to their cassette-based language laboratories as white elephants because teachers were simply not in a position to constantly prepare or update recorded material, to supervise its use, and to integrate it into the curriculum, assessment procedures and evolving educational theory. As with language laboratories, teachers are looking to computers as a way of improving their capacity to instruct without further increasing an already heavy workload. <br />
Assuming that the capacity of teachers and designers to continue to develop quality materials is constant, one key to the viability of foreign language instructional software lies in successful management of the balance between the need for the materials and the effort and resources required to produce them. Although the needs base is most clearly defined within the individual institution, it is rarely possible at that level to invest thousands of hours into producing materials, or thousands of dollars into purchasing and adapting externally produced materials and systems, if there is no guarantee that they have the capacity to move freely across borders created by technology cycles and phases in educational philosophy, or that the need they were designed to meet will not evaporate. The smaller the clientele, the more likely it is to feel the impact of this principle. And the clientele for foreign language learning materials is extraordinarily fragmented by factors such as the age and the cultural and linguistic background of students, institutional priorities, financial resources, teacher preferences and government policies. Development costs must be weighed up against a realistic assessment of future use and of the capacity of the software to save resources or generate income. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Measured Steps</h4>In terms of technological evolution, the change from Power Macs to iMacs, for example, was small. Where it did force people to upgrade, it was not usually for purposes of their routine in-house wordprocessing, but because of their desire or need to perform new tasks (downloading audio, video, animated graphics from the Web, streaming, connecting to high end applications, or dealing with higher version documents sent from outside). It did not represent a quantum leap of the same order as the advance from the printing press to the computer, or even from the Apple IIE to the Mac Classic. To treat every development in IT as a signal to update-or-scrap existing CALL software is a recipe for unnecessary frustration. <br />
It is sobering to ask oneself the question of which foreign language software will still be here in 5 years time, let alone 50. In such a climate, it is important to counter the threat that CALL modules and packages may soon be viewed as yet another manifestation of ‘boom and bust’ in the history of foreign language teaching. One strategy is to make durability (of platform, content, and educational philosophy) a primary consideration at every stage of development, and to calculate on taking the longest possible development steps on the safest possible footing. <br />
</div><div class="paragraph"> <h4>Image and Attitudes</h4>To change for the sake of change, particularly when to do so is costly and gives no guarantee a superior product, has the potential to cause considerable long-term damage. And it is important to learn to dissociate ‘look’ from functionality. The notion of a ‘classic’ (in the sense of something simple and conventional whose popularity is largely unaffected by changing fashion) seems to have gained very little currency in the world of CALL software. There are classic design principles, but the materials that embody them tend to be ephemeral. <br />
For a student or teacher to feel that fully operational software should be abandoned solely on the grounds of unfavourable reaction to some of its aesthetic qualities makes little sense. And from the point of view of perceptions in the broader community, it is perhaps unfortunate that standard English syntax happens to place adjectives before nouns in phrases such as ‘computer aided language learning’ thus unwittingly according semantic emphasis to the means (the computer) rather than the end (the learning), whereas, in a language such as French, where the same referent is labelled ‘enseignement assisté par ordinateur’, the structure is such as to give the substantive (‘enseignement’: teaching) primacy over the qualifier (‘computer-aided’). <br />
</div></div><div class="chapter"> <h3>The Student Perspective</h3>As long as materials are operating smoothly, it is ultimately the learners who should decide on whether they are useful or not. It was reported in the early stages of use of the Wollongong CALL materials that ‘on the academic level, feedback from students is very close to 100% positive’ and that ‘negative comments relate almost exclusively to operational matters and are concentrated on two areas: the speed of the computers and the fact that totally accurate typing is required’ (McCarthy 1996: 26; see also McCarthy 1995: 40-41). It should be safe to assume that after 10 years of use, any halo effect must have well and truly dissipated. Nevertheless, in the second semester of 2000 an anonymous survey of all students enrolled in French (a completely different cohort from the one reported on earlier, and from a wide range of specialisations, including IT) revealed that without exception they found use of the CALL grammar materials to be helpful to their studies. In the second semester of 2001 another anonymous survey of all students sought their reaction to the observation that the materials were looking long in the tooth and must have outlived their usefulness. In the matter of aesthetics there were mixed responses, ranging from total endorsement of the cosmetic criticism to obliviousness to any signs of age. Operational problems related less to speed (the present machines are faster than the original Macintosh Classics), and more to the intolerance of the machine to any inaccuracy in typing, to the relatively slow load time (response time once it is loaded is not a problem), and to the fact that (being Hypercard-based) it cannot be used on PCs and does not lend itself to off-campus (on-line) use. Once again, all students were finding the materials useful in some way. Repeated mention was made of the advantages of immediate feedback and the possibility of individuals working at their own pace. Responses ranged from straightforward positive comments regarding the simplicity, thoroughness and usefulness of the materials to resounding endorsements (‘invaluable’, ‘absolutely necessary’, ‘one of the most positive aspects of the course’) and even downright indignation at any hint that its usefulness might be considered to have diminished (in the words of one student: ‘*** to that– it's not true!’). <br />
Looks and technical limitations aside, students could not imagine anything doing a better job of reviewing and maintaining basic grammar. In addition, many of the students proceeded to offer their own surprisingly perceptive analytical comments, including: <br />
<ul><li>‘Grammar is grammar and does not change at the same rate as computers (or consumer appetites!)’;</li>
<li>‘its pedagogical worth has not diminished one bit’;</li>
<li>[any problem with] ‘its appearance is far outweighed by its highly evolved nature and essentially flawless performance’;</li>
<li>‘the <span class="u">immense</span> (sic) cost and effort that would be involved in transferring the data from current programs to a modern GUI (Graphical User Interface) application would be beyond the budget of the University, let alone a small company or department. A major software producer for small level business [name supplied] charges upwards of $200 per hour for software development and repair’;</li>
<li>‘as it [the grammar software] is for the most simple grammatical sentences, it really can't outdate’;</li>
<li>‘ease of use, understandability, practicality and effectiveness are far more important than graphics or design’;</li>
<li>‘as long as the computer performs its function and assists a student in developing his/her language skills, then aesthetics are irrelevant’;</li>
<li>‘this software is just as relevant now as it was when it was first produced, and probably in the future’, ‘I think that changing the layout or look will not substantially improve the software’;</li>
<li>‘The content is fantastic... At first I thought it was outdated and probably would not have utilised it as a learning resource. Because it was compulsory I realised how beneficial it was and do not see a great need to upgrade’;</li>
<li>‘the grammar that it's teaching us doesn't change’;</li>
<li>‘if there is no substantial change to be made in the content, it seems like a waste of resources to develop a new version of the same thing... the databases behind the software are quite adequate as they are’.</li>
</ul><br />
The essence of many of the preceding observations is summed up in one student's laconic, if hackneyed, ‘If it ain't broke, don't fix it’. <br />
The purpose of this paper has not been to oppose development or resist change. It has been to contest the often unconscious use of ‘look’ as the sole or main criterion for assessing a piece of software. Moreover, it encourages software consumers to assess the shelf-life of products from the perspective of ‘best before’ rather than ‘use by’, as the former, by emphasising usefulness and minimum life span, keeps the focus on the recognised qualities of the contents, whereas the latter suggests that the product should be discarded on a given date regardless of its actual value or of the existence of a satisfactory substitute. Although it has been essentially a case study, many of the concepts and principles evoked are universals. They point clearly to two broad conclusions. The first is that the working life of a piece of CALL software can be lengthened considerably by taking full account at the design and development stages of the range of factors that can cause such materials to fall into disuse, and by consistently working towards minimising their impact. The second is that materials that continue to meet genuine student needs and that leave institutional registers of material and human resources in the black are well placed to resist challenges to their viability based on superficial criteria. Not having continually to revise or recreate allows the developer to take fresh steps unhindered. It is not particularly difficult to brand something a ‘dinosaur’. But the label alone does not make it extinct. It is a more challenging assignment to create something that looks like a dinosaur, but that is intelligent, robust, well-exercised... and has long teeth. <br />
</div><div class="reference"> <h3>References</h3><br />
<ul><li>Lamport-Smith, L. (1935). <span class="italic">Le français par l'image: Livre de lecture pour la seconde et latroisième année</span>, Glasgow: Blackie & Son.</li>
<li>Le Petit, Robert. (1990). <span class="italic">dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française</span>. Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert.</li>
<li>Le Nouveau Petit, Robert. (2000). <span class="italic">dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française</span>. Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert.</li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (1994a). Language system, computer constraint and pedagogy: Three-cornered contest or three-part harmony? <span class="italic">On-CALL - TheAustralian Journal of Computers and Language Education</span>, 8(3): 11-20.</li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (1994b). Discerning the teacher behind the software. <span class="italic">ReCall- Journal of the CTI Centre for Modern Languages, University of Hull, England,in association with EUROCALL</span>, 6(2): 23-28.</li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (1994c). Designing materials for Computer Assisted LanguageLearning: Some preliminary considerations, <span class="italic">BABEL - Journal of theAustralian Federation of Modern Language Teachers' Associations </span>, 29(3), 24-27& 36.</li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (1995). Grammar Drills: What CALL can and cannot do. <span class="italic">On-CALL- The Australian Journal of Computers and Language Education</span>, 9 >(2), 30-41.</li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (1996). Fully Integrated CALL: Mission Accomplished. <span class="italic">ReCall- Journal of the CTI Centre for Modern Languages, University of Hull, England,in association with EUROCALL</span>, 8(2), 17-34.</li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (1999). Integration: the sine qua non of CALL.. <span class="italic">CALL-EJOnline</span>, 1(2). (ISSN 1442-438X).<<a href="http://www.clec.ritsumei.ac.jp/english/callejonline/4-2/mccarthy.html" target="_blank">http://www.clec.ritsumei.ac.jp/english/callejonline/4-2/mccarthy.html</a>></li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (2000). Harnessing CyberFrench for Specific Purposes. <span class="italic">CALL-EJOnline</span>, 1(3). (ISSN 1442-438X).<<a href="http://www.clec.ritsumei.ac.jp/english/callejonline/4-3/mccarthy.html" target="_blank">http://www.clec.ritsumei.ac.jp/english/callejonline/4-3/mccarthy.html</a>></li>
<li>McCarthy, B.N. (2001). It needn't be CALL-or-nothing: A case of computersas partners not managers in a multimedia teaching kit. <span class="italic">CALL-EJ Online</span>, 2(2). (ISSN 1442-438X). <<a href="http://www.clec.ritsumei.ac.jp/english/callejonline/5-2/mccarthy.htm" target="_blank">http://www.clec.ritsumei.ac.jp/english/callejonline/5-2/mccarthy.htm</a>></li>
</ul><br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Notes</h3><br />
<ol><li>This article is based on a paper presented at EUROCALL 2001 Conference, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, 29 August - 1 September, 2001.</li>
<li>The author wishes to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of Ray Stace, without whose expertise and feedback in the area of instructional design, and untiring commitment to programming, the materials would not have seen the light of day.</li>
<li>Personal correspondence (6.6.01) from Tess Collins, Partnership Manager, Australia-New Zealand, Worldwide Developer Relations, Apple Computer.</li>
</ol><div>source: http://callej.org/</div><br />
</div><div class="chapter"> <h3>Author</h3><span class="bold"><a href="mailto:brianm@uow.edu.au">Brian McCarthy</a></span> is Associate Professor in French at the University of Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia. His principal research interests are in foreign language teaching methodology, computer assisted language learning, software development, phonetics and translation. <br />
</div></div><div class="copyright"> Copyright (c) 2002- Brian McCarthy & CALL-EJ Online (ISSN 1442-438X). All rights reserved. </div>farindaprimaputrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14545298562850685289noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8152145172907692764.post-42954269423171384902011-12-03T17:45:00.003-08:002011-12-03T17:45:51.875-08:00The use of collaborative Web page-design projects for teaching EFL, with a focus on Japanese university students%3Ch3+class%3D%22post-title+entry-title%22%3E%0D%0A+The+use+of+collaborative+Web+page-design+projects+for+teaching+EFL%2C+with+a+focus+on+Japanese+university+students+%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22post-header%22%3E%0D%0A++%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22journal%22%3E%0D%0A+++%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EISSN+1442-438X%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ECALL-EJ+Online%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EVol.+3%2C+No.+1%2C+June+2001%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22title%22%3E%0D%0A++%3Ch2%3E%0D%0A%0D%0A%3C%2Fh2%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22author%22%3E%0D%0A+++%3Cul%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EIain+Davey%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3E%3Ca+href%3D%22mailto%3Aifd66%40mac.com%22%3Eifd66%40mac.com%3C%2Fa%3E%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ERitsumeikan+University%2C+Japan%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Ful%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22article%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AIntroduction%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AThe++relatively+new+area+of+Computer+Assisted+Language+learning+%28CALL%29+is+++now+regarded+to+be+in+its+third+phase+of+development+%28Trotman%2C+2000%29+++which+is+characterised+by+the+dominance+of+the+Internet%2C+and+in+++particular+the+World+Wide+Web+%28WWW+or+Web.%29.+Where+as+in+the+early+++1980%27s%2C+CALL+consisted+almost+entirely+of+relatively+simple+grammar+or+++text-reconstruction+programmes%2C+and+by+the+late+1980%27s%2C+there+was+the+++emergence+of+%22multimedia%22%2C+which+allowed+for+the+more+interactive+use+of+++sound%2C+text+and+images.+Finally%2C+it+has+been+during+the+90%27s+that+the+++third+phase+emerged+with+the+phenomenal+growth+of+the+Internet.++++%0D%0AOver+the+past+ten+years%2C+using+the+Internet+as+an+EFL+tool+has+received+++much+attention+that+is+evidenced+by+the+plethora+of+articles+that+are+++dedicated+to+this+growing+area+of+teaching+%28e.g.+Fox+1998%2C+Garner+%26amp%3B+++Gillingham+1996%2C+Motteram+1997%29.++++%0D%0AAs+a+useful+summary%2C+Grey+%281999%29+identifies+four+ways+that+the+Internet++may+be+utilised+in+the+class%3A++++%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ESearch+for+and+receive%3A+Activities+that+involve+researching+from++the+information+held+on+the+Web+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EPublish+and+provide%3A+When+students+create+their+own+material+for++the+Web.+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ETalk+to+and+reply%3A+Activities+using+e-mail%2C+virtual+chat+rooms++%28MOOs+etc%29.+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ECollaborate+and+learn%3A+When+students%2C+ideally+from+different+++classes+or+even+different+countries%2C+work+together+on+a+joint+project.+++++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%0D%0AAlthough+this+paper+will+mainly+focus+on+the+second+category%2C+the+++various+issues+and+activities+that+will+be+covered%2C+will+also+involve+++the+other+three+categories.+Particular+areas+for+attention+will+include+++aspects+of+authenticity%2C+motivation%2C+task-based+learning+and+++collaborating+learning.++++%0D%0AWhile+considering+what+web+page-design+activities+may+actually+involve%2C+++the+paper+will+look+at+how+the+various+facets+of+such+work+can+be+++applied+to+the+ELT+classroom+together+with+the+benefits%2C+and+the+++possible+obstacles%2C+of+doing+so.+The+paper+will+relate+the+main+points+++to+the+experiences+of+a+project+that+was+carried+out+with+Japanese+++university+students.++++%0D%0AFinally%2C+data+collected+from+a+questionnaire+given+to+the+students+after+++they+had+completed+their+projects+will+be+considered+and+then+used+to+++form+a+conclusion.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AWhat+a+collaborative+Web+page-design+project+can+involve%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AThe++main+goal+is+to+provide+the+students+with+a+significant+task+that+++requires+meaningful+communication+through+collaboration%2C+either+inside%2C+++or+outside+the+classroom.+In+the+context+of+language+teaching%2C+a+task+++is%3A++++%0D%0A%27Any+classroom+work+which+involves+learners+in+comprehending%2C+++manipulating%2C+producing+or+interacting+in+the+target+language+while+++their+attention+is+primarily+focused+on+meaning+rather+than+form%27%28Nunan%2C+++1993%3A59%29++++%0D%0AAs+we+shall+see+in+this+paper%2C+in+addition+to+Web+page-design+skills%2C+++good+tasks+have+the+potential+to+encapsulate+the+use+and+development+of+++many+other+skills+such+as+E-mailing%2C+browsing%2C+and+creative+design.+++However%2C+because+of+the+technical+aspect+of+this+kind+of+project+work%2C+++it+is+essential+that+students+are+given+adequate+training+and+experience+++in+using+the+Internet.+As+Trokeloshvilli+%26amp%3B+Jost+%281997%29%2C+among+++others%2C+point+out%2C+computer+competence+may+be+regarded+as+the+single+++most+important+aspect+of+a+web-integrated+class.++++%0D%0AIn+most+cases+teachers+should+assume+minimal+or+even+no+experience+of+++the+Internet+among+the+students+and+progressively+take+them+through+a+++number+of+tasks+that+teach+them+basic+Web+orientation+and+navigation+++skills%2C+and+how+to+use+E-mail.+If+this+stage+is+neglected%2C+students+will+++soon+find+the+main+tasks+that+follow+too+difficult%2C+and+overwhelming.+++Therefore%2C+as+Fox+%281998%29+comments%2C+teacher+support+is+essential.++++%0D%0AAdequate+teacher+training+in+computer+skills+is+equally+important+if+++they+are+to+provide+the+additional+support+%28as+compared+to+non-CALL+++language+classes%29+students+will+need+to+overcome+the+technical+problems+++that+will+inevitably+occur.+At+my+university%2C+in+addition+to+trained+++teachers%2C+assistants+are+provided+to+help+with+the+support+of+the+CALL+++classes.++++%0D%0AIn+the+planning+stage+of+any+project%2C+it+is+also+important+to+consider+++the+contact+hours+and+facilities+that+are+available+when+deciding+on+the+++type+and+level+of+support.++++%0D%0AOnce+the+students+are+familiar+with+the+rudimentary+skills+of+using+the+++Web%2C+they+can+be+introduced+to+the+basics+of+using+web+page+editors.+++These+are+software+programmes+used+to+make+basic+web+pages+and+which+are+++often+provided+free+%28e.g.+Netscape+Composer%2C+FrontPage%29.+Because+most+++of+the+functions+are+similar+to+those+found+on+word+processing+software+++packages%2C+they+are+very+user-friendly+and+therefore%2C+relatively+easy++and++fun+to+use.++++%0D%0AFor+the+more+able+and+ambitious+students+%28and+teachers%29%2C+an+alternative+++is+to+use+HTML+%28Hypertext+Mark-up+Language%29%2C+the+actual+computer+++language+that+most+web+pages+are+based+on.+The+advantages+are+that+it+++gives+the+user+a+better+understanding+of+how+a+web+page+works%2C+and+++allows+greater+control+over+how+the+web+page+looks.+In+addition%2C+pages+++written+directly+in+HTML+typically+use+less+HTML+codes%2C+and+so+load+more+++quickly.+This+may+become+an+important+factor+if+you+are+planning+to+++publish+a+sizeable+web+site.++++%0D%0AFortunately%2C+for+the+less+technically+enthused+students+%28and+teachers%29+++the+advantages+of+learning+and+using+HTML+codes+are+likely+to+become+++less+distinct+as+web+page+editing+software+continues+to+improve.++++%0D%0AIf+the+stages+above+are+adequately+covered%2C+students+should+then+be+++ready+to+carry+out+a+web+page-designing+task%2C+either+individually+or+++collaboratively.+The+following+are+a+number+of+useful+steps+adapted+from+++work+by+Muehleisen+%281997%29%2C+which+can+be+used+to+help+structure+project+++tasks+successfully.++++%0D%0A%0D%0A%3Col%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EDecide+whether+students+are+to+work+individually+or+in+groups%2C+and++if+the+latter%2C+what+size+the+groups+should+be.+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EDecide+a+topic%3B+related+either+to+class+work+or+the+students+own+++interests.+As+Breen+%281987%29+points+out%2C+for+successful+tasks%2C+it+is+++important+to+have+a+clear+objective%2C+and+a+range+of+possible+outcomes.+++At+this+stage%2C+decisions+on+the+format+of+the+pages+are+also+important%2C+++and+will+depend+on+factors+such+as+students%27+English+level+%28lower++levels++using+more+graphics%2C+and+less+text%29%2C+and+computer+experience.+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EDecide+on+the+target+audience%3A+e.g.+for+other+students+or+groups++in++their+school+or+University%2C+people+outside+the+country+they+are+in%2C++or++for+people+with+general+or+special+interests%3F+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3ELook+for+related+pages.+This+will+give+the+teacher+an+idea+how++much++support+and+guidance+the+students+are+likely+to+need+researching++their++topic.+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3Cli%3EGet+the+students+to+focus+on+Web+page+design.+This+can+be+done+++through+tasks+that+involve+browsing+and+evaluating+a+variety+of+pages+++which+could+include+pages+published+by+other+students.+For+example%2C+at+%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyoto-su.ac.jp%2Finformation%2Ffamous%2F%2F%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyoto-su.ac.jp%2Finformation%2Ffamous%2F%3C%2Fa%3E+++there+is+the+Famous+Personages+in+Japan+site+made+by+students+of++Sangyo++University.+Examples+of+other+awareness+building+activities+can++be+seen++in+appendix+I.+Basic+requirements+of+a+good+web+page+are+that++it+is++useful%2C+interesting+or+fun%2C+easy+to+use+%28uncluttered+and+easy+to+++navigate%29%2C+and+fast+to+download.+++%3C%2Fli%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fol%3E%0D%0A%0D%0AFinally%2C+with+these+points+in+mind%2C+it+is+also+important+not+to+neglect+++the+more+fundamental+pedagogic+ideas.+In+this+context+the+teacher++should++ensure+that+any+project%2C+rather+than+an+appendage%2C+is+an++integral+part++of+the+syllabus+%28Fox%2C+1998%29.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AAdvantages+and+disadvantages+for+the+EFL+classroom%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AAn++in+depth+article+that+considers+the+theoretical+implications+of+++computer-mediated+collaborative+language+learning%2C+Warschauer+%281997%29+++points+out+that%2C+rather+than+research+studies%2C+most+work+in+this+area+is+++based+on+teachers%27+personal+evaluations.+Because+this+is+true+for+most+++of+the+work+that+follows%2C+it+should+be+regarded+with+some+caution.+++Although+such+evaluations+are+valuable%2C+much+still+needs+to+be+learnt+++about+using+computers+in+the+classroom+and+their+relative+effectiveness+++at+helping+to+develop+students%27+communicative+skills.++++%0D%0AMany+writers+advocate+the+use+of+the+Internet+for+EFL+because+of+the+++inherent+authenticity+of+its+use.+The+Web+offers+authentic+information+++%28e.g.+current+news+and+weather%2C+prices+of+goods%2C+travel+timetables%29+++which+can+be+used+for+collaborative+ELT+tasks%2C+and+by+offering+a+diverse+++and+almost+limitless+source+of+authentic+texts+that+cover+a+wide+range+++of+topics%2C+it+also+has+great+potential+for+content-based+materials.+++++%0D%0AAs+Singhal+%281997%29+observes%2C+the+Internet+allows+students+to+use+English+++in+an+%22authentic+setting%22+and+%22promotes+literacy+for+authentic+++purposes%22.+Although+a+task+is+inevitably+contrived%2C+if+collaboration+is+++needed+to+complete+it%2C+then+genuine+communication+will+take+place.+++Ideally%2C+if+collaboration+is+between+students+from+different+classes+or+++even+different+countries+then+the+use+of+E-mail+will+necessitate+an+++authentic+use+of+communicative+skills.+In+addition%2C+and+as+with+++web-based+publishing%2C+the+students+are+provided+with+a+%27real+audience%27+++%28Bicknell%2C+1997%29+which+is+often+recognised+as+a+successful+technique+to+++motivate+students+with+their+writing.++++%0D%0AMany+claims+are+also+made+about+the+motivational+aspects+of+using+the+++Internet.+Lee+%282000%29%2C+for+example%2C+while+considering+the+motivational+++aspects+of+tasks+that+involve+the+Internet%2C+describes+creating+and+++publishing+web+pages+as+a+task+that+is+%22one+of+the+most+potentially+++valuable+and+energising%22+%28Lee%2C+2000%29++++%0D%0AMuehleisen+%281997%29+is+more+specific+and+points+to+the+%27intrinsic%27+++%28Harmer%2C+1991%29+motivation+which+comes+from+wanting+to+be+part+of+the+++Internet+%27boom%27%2C+and+from+the+realisation+that+the+skills+learnt+will+++become+useful%2C+if+not+essential%2C+in+the+future.++++%0D%0AThe+experimental+and+goal-orientated+nature+of+such+collaborative+++projects+involve+tasks+such+as+deciding+with+a+partner+where+to+place+a+++picture+on+a+page+being+constructed%2C+or+browsing%2C+which+requires+active+++choices+of+where+to+search+next.+These+are+claimed+to+help+promote+++higher+order+thinking+skills+%28Mike%2C+1996%29%2Cwhich+include+reviewing%2C+++scanning%2C+selecting+and+negotiating%2C+and+particularly+important+for+EFL+++students+doing+further+studies+in+other+disciplines%2C+research+and+++rhetorical+skills+that+may+be+developed.++++%0D%0AFurthermore%2C+Warschauer+%281997%29+points+out+that+these+skills+encompass++%27situated+learning%27%3A+that+which+allows+students%3A++++%0D%0A%22to+carry+out+meaningful+tasks%2C+and+solve+meaningful+problems%2C+in+an+++environment+that+reflects+their+own+personal+interests+as+well+as+the+++multiple+purposes+to+which+their+knowledge+will+be+put+in+the+future%22+++%28Collins%2C+Brown%2C+%26amp%3B+Newman%2C+1989%3A487%29++++%0D%0AIndeed%2C+with+the+goal+of+designing+and+publishing+web+pages%2C+students+++can+actively+make+use+of+new+technologies%2C+skills%2C+and+knowledge.+++Warschauer+%281997%29+also+acknowledges+this%2C+and+highlights+the+view+of+++Cummins+%26amp%3B+Sayer%27s+%281990%3B+1995%29+that+many+skills%2C+in+particular%2C+++those+which+are+involved+in+collaboratively+accessing+and+interpreting+++world-wide+information%2C+and+with+peoples+from+different+cultures%2C+will+++be+critical+for+success+in+the+21st+century.++++%0D%0AThe+Internet+has+become+an+ideal+medium+for+EFL+students+to+easily+++present+creative+works%2C+and%2C+in+the+form+of+research+projects%2C+motivates+++them+to+extend+their+knowledge+and+demonstrate+their+understanding+of+++class+topics.+Whereas+the+Internet+was+once+exclusively+for+the+++technically+%27elite%27%2C+the+range+of+freeware+now+available+is+making+the+++relatively+sophisticated+%27creative%27+use+of+the+Internet+possible+for+++everyone+with+the+necessary+hardware.+As+mentioned+earlier%2C+free+page+++editing+software+is+becoming+increasingly+powerful+and+user-friendly%2C+++and+this+reduces+the+need+for+students+to+learn+the+more+complicated+++HTML+machine+code.++++%0D%0AWeb+Whacker%2C%28at+%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bluesquirrel.com%2Fproducts%2Fwhacker%2Fwhacker.html%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.bluesquirrel.com%2Fproducts%2Fwhacker%2Fwhacker.html%3C%2Fa%3E%29+++which+allows+the+user+to+download+external+web+sites+for+local+access+++and+browsing%2C+is+another+software+programme+that+can+offer+many+++applications+for+Internet+support+and+training.++++%0D%0APublishing+work+is+also+becoming+cheaper+and+easier+with%2C+for+example%2C++sites+such+as+%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2F%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%3C%2Fa%3E%2C++and+%3Ca+href%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freecitywebpages.com%2F%2F%22+target%3D%22_blank%22%3Ehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.freecitywebpages.com%2F%3C%2Fa%3E++that+offer+free+services+for+posting+web+sites.++++%0D%0AUsing+E-mail+as+part+of+a+project+can+also+provide+important+benefits+++for+the+students.+Because+it+can+facilitate+asynchronous+%28rather+than+++synchronous%29+online+collaboration%2C+it+has+been+shown+in+a+study+by+Wang+++%281993%29+to+allow+more+reflection+and+analysis.+This+can+help+minimise+++%27communicative+stress%27%2C+which+Brown+%26amp%3B+Yule+%281983%3A34%29+lists+as+a+++major+factor+for+creating+optimum+communicative+learning+conditions.+A+++further+benefit+associated+with+online+communication+is+that+it+can+++expand+the+students%27+ability+to+communicate+in+the+target+language+++beyond+class+times.++++%0D%0AAll+these+points+commonly+demonstrate+the+nature+of+Internet+based+++material+to+be+task+based+and+therefore%2C+essentially+learner+centred+and+++interactive.+However%2C+there+are+some+important+obstacles%2C+which+if+not+++accounted+for%2C+may+seriously+limit+the+benefits+that+have+been+++highlighted.++++%0D%0ADespite+the+huge+potential+the+information+on+the+Internet+can+offer%2C+it+++is+not+provided+without+its+problems.+Ironically%2C+the+freedom+and+ease+++of+using+and+contributing+to+the+Internet%2C+and+shown+earlier+to++provide++important+benefits%2C+is+also+the+cause+of+one+of+the+Internet%27s++most++serious+limitations.+The+current+freedom+of+expression%2C+combined++with++very+limited+accountability%2C+means+that+there+is+no+means+to++validate++the+information+available.+In+addition%2C+the+accessing+of++information%2C++can+itself%2C+be+difficult+because+search+tools+are+still++relatively++crude%2C+Web+pages+and+links+are+unpredictable+and+unstable%2C++and+technical++support+is+invariably+limited.++++%0D%0ATo+minimise+these+problems%2C+teachers+should+therefore+develop+the+skills+++and+knowledge+so+that+they+are+able+to+provide+some+technical+support+++themselves.+This+also+applies+to+the+continuous+inflow+of+new+jargon%2C+++which+may+include+technical+terms%2C+acronyms%2C+and+abbreviations%2C+which+++both+teachers+and+students+will+need+to+deal+with.++++%0D%0ATeachers+will+need+to+consider+the+students%27+technical+skills+and+++experience%2C+which+may+cause+an+otherwise+carefully+streamed+language+++class%2C+to+become+divided+in+terms+of+the+overall+abilities+of+the+++students.+While+it+is+important+to+ensure+that+tasks+make+it+necessary+++for+the+weaker+learners+to+actually+practise+and+learn+the+technical+++skills%2C+to+help+compensate+for+the+differences+in+abilities%2C%2C+the+++teacher+should+try+and+group+the+students+in+a+way+that+encourages+peer+++support+so+that+weaker+students+do+not+get+left+out%2C+and+fall+behind+in+++the+tasks.++++%0D%0AThe+amount+of+time+students+have+to+use+computers%2C+either+inside+or+++outside+the+class%2C+is+also+important.+If+a+student+is+expected+to+++complete+a+Web-design+project+successfully%2C+they+will+have+needed+a+++certain+amount+of+time+using+the+Internet.+Many+of+the+activities%2C+once+++demonstrated%2C+will+therefore+need+to+be+practised+in+order+to+be+++properly+learned.++++%0D%0AFinally%2C+although+the+Internet+itself+may+appear+free%2C+the+cost+of+++supplying+the+necessary+hardware+to+access+it%2C+and+the+telephone+and+++provider+charges%2C+all+need+to+be+considered%2C+and+may+become+limiting+++factor+in+the+providing+adequate+availability+of+services.++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AA+Web-design+project+at+a+Japanese+university%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22%3E%0D%0A+++++%3Ch4%3E%0D%0ABackground%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0AThis++project+was+carried+with+four+CALL+classes+at+a+Japanese++university.++All+the+students+were+first+years+doing+their+second+term+of++the++course.+All+the+classes+were+compulsory%2C+and+therefore%2C+had+larger+++student+numbers+and+a+fixed+syllabus.+The+aim+of+this+type+of+class+is+++to+teach+students%2C+through+the+medium+of+English%2C+the+basics+of+using+++computers.+At+the+same+time%2C+the+computers+are+used+as+a+tool+to+provide+++opportunities+and+motivation+for+the+students+to+improve+their+English+++skills.+Each+class+is+run+by+an+English+speaking+teacher+%28either+a+++native+English+speaker+or+Japanese%29%2C+and+a+student+assistant%2C+who+has+++had+training+in+all+the+workings+of+the+classroom+computer+facilities.+++The+term%27s+course+is+14+weeks+long%2C+and+meets+once+a+week+for+90+++minutes.+++++%0D%0AIn+the+first+term%2C+students+had+become+familiar+with+file+management+++skills%2C+text+editing+and+formatting%2C+E-mail%2C+browsing+the+Internet%2C+++book-marking%2C+and+copying+and+using+pictures+and+photographs+from+the+++Internet.++This+ensured+they+all+had+reached+a+level+of+computer+++literacy+that+would+allow+them+to+carry+out+a+Web-design+project.+++++%0D%0AAt+the+beginning+of+the+second+term%2C+the+students+were+introduced+to+the+++freeware+web+page+editor%2C+Netscape+Composer.+This+was+chosen+simply+++because+Netscape+is+the+browser+used+by+the+university+computers.++The+++different+functions+they+would+need+were+introduced+one+at+a+time%2C+by+++demonstrations+that+were+relayed+to+each+students+monitor.+The+students+++were+instructed+to+watch%2C+take+notes%2C+and+then+practise+each+skill+in+++turn%2C+with+the+aim+of+minimising+the+input+load+and+ensuring+that+the+++students+were+able+to+fully+understand+the+necessary+functions+of+++Composer.+In+order%2C+the+functions+included%3B+text+formatting%2C+selecting+++suitable+backgrounds+%28including+downloaded+patterns+and+colours+of+their+++choice%29%2C+using+tables%2C+and+finally%2C+creating+links.+This+was+spread+++over+two+classes+to+ensure+that+weaker+students+were+able+to+keep+up%2C+++and+students+that+may+have+been+absent%2C+the+chance+to+catch+up.+++++%0D%0AIn+preparation+for+the+project%2C+the+students+were+put+into+groups+of+4+++or+5.+However%2C+because+the+classes+were+monolingual%2C+the+potential+for+++L2+communication+within+the+class+was+limited%2C+with+students+naturally+++reverting+to+their+L1.+This+is+particularly+true+for+university+classes+++where+the+intrinsic+motivation+will+often+be+lower+than+with+fee+paying+++private+language+classes.+Furthermore%2C+because+the+sizes+of+university+++classes+are+often+large%2C+monitoring+students+can+be+more+difficult.++++++%0D%0ATo+encourage+more+collaboration+in+English%2C+groups+were+made+up+of+++students+from+two+different+classes%2C+with+E-mail+as+their+only+means+of+++communication.+For+additional+%27encouragement%27+to+use+English%2C+they+were+++told+to+keep+a+record+of+all+e-mail+messages+for+review.+++++%0D%0AIn+order+to+get+students+thinking+about+what+makes+a+good+web+page+++design%2C+and+the+points+the+teacher+would+be+considering+while+grading+++the+assignments+a+few+matching+tasks+%28appendix+I%29+were+then+given.+++++%0D%0AFinally%2C+details+%28appendix+II%29+of+the+main+project+task%2C+which+would+++last+6+weeks%2C+were+handed+out+and+explained.+The+aim+of+the+project+was+++for+the+students+to+produce+a+collaborative+web+site+that+introduces+++each+member+of+the+group%2C+and+presents+their+research+on+a+topic+of+++their+choice%2C+but+from+the+book+%27Introductory+Topics%27%28Sophia+%26amp%3B+++Frazier%2C+1994%29.+This+was+chosen+because+it+gave+the+students+the+chance+++to+work+on+a+topic+that+they+had+recently+covered.+The+same+book+was+++being+used+in+another+English+course+that+runs+concurrently+with+the+++CALL+course.+++++%0D%0AFor+feedback%2C+a+questionnaire+%28appendix+III%29+was+given+out+after+the+++projects+had+been+completed.+Because+of+the+large+class+sizes%2C+in+++addition+to+observations+in+the+classes%2C+I+felt+that+a+questionnaire+was+++the+most+feasible+method+of+getting+the+students+general+thoughts+++towards+the+project.+++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22%3E%0D%0A+++++%3Ch4%3E%0D%0AObservations%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0AIntroducing+the++students+to+the+workings+of+Composer+was+relatively++straightforward++because+of+the+structured+way+in+which+it+was+done.+The++students+seemed++to+do+well%2C+because+the+tasks%2C+by+being+structured%2C++closely+resembled++what+most+students+would+have+already+experienced+at++the+schools+in++Japan%2C+which+largely%2C+still+maintain+the+traditional++teacher+student++roles+whereby+the+students+passively+receive+and+learn++streams+of++information.+++++%0D%0AHowever%2C+this+may+also+have+contributed+to+a+lack+of+organisation+and+++initiative+shown+by+the+students+towards+working+with+group+members%2C+++particularly+those+from+another+class.+This+became+a+significant+problem+++that+caused+many+delays+with%2C+for+example%2C+students+passively+waiting+++for+replies%2C+rather+than+getting+on+with+other+tasks%2C+or+sending++further++messages+explaining+contingency+plans+should+they+not+receive+a++quick++reply.+++++%0D%0AThe+input+for+the+students+which+focused+on+design+issues%2C+and+was+based+++on+discovery+technique%2C+did+not+work+well.+Students%27+answers+indicated+++that+they+had+not+made+an+effort+to+think+about+the+questions%2C+or+were+++not+able+to+grasp+the+meanings+as+well+as+I+had+anticipated.+++++%0D%0AAlthough+the+students+used+English+throughout+the+project%2C+this+was+++mostly+limited+to+E-mails%2C+browsing+the+Internet%2C+writing+text+for+their+++web+pages%2C+or+asking+me+questions.+Most+verbal+interaction+between+the+++students+was+however%2C+in+Japanese.+Furthermore%2C+although+students+had+++been+instructed+to+use+English+based+sites%2C+on+more+that+a+few+++occasions%2C+they+were+found+to+be+browsing+Japanese+sites.+Despite+the+++earlier+positive+comments+about+the+motivational+aspects+of+using+the+++Internet%2C+this+suggests+a+lack+of+general+motivation+towards+English+++which+many+university+students+often+demonstrate%2C+particularly+when+the+++classes+are+compulsory.+++++%0D%0ADespite+the+problems+that+were+encountered%2C+the+final+results+were+++generally+positive.+Many+of+the+web+sites+were+well+put+together+and+the+++majority+of+the+students+had+clearly+put+in+a+lot+of+effort+into+what+++they+that+been+doing.+Also%2C+as+the+deadline+approached+there+was+a+++marked+increase+in+collaboration+and+peer+teaching.+Although+E-mail+++activity+dropped+sharply+after+initial+exchanges%2C+it+significantly+++increased+during+the+last+few+weeks+of+the+project.+++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22paragraph%22%3E%0D%0A+++++%3Ch4%3E%0D%0AFindings%3C%2Fh4%3E%0D%0AFrom+the+classes+I++was+teaching%2C+I+received+68+completed+questionnaires.++The+answers+were++totalled%2C+and+then+converted+into+a+percentage+%28see++appendix+IV+for+the++final+figures%29.+However%2C+it+should+be+noted+that++because+some+sections++allow+for+more+than+one+answer%2C+the+combined++percentages+might+be++greater+than+a+hundred.+++++%0D%0AAnswers+to+the+first+two+parts+of+the+questionnaire+show+that+the+++majority+%2865%25%29+of+the+students+sometimes+use+computers+other+than+for+++university+classes.+However%2C+it+also+confirmed+that+most+students+%2882%25%29+++had+never+made+a+web+page+before.+Ideally%2C+these+questions+should+be+++part+of+a+pre-course+needs+analysis%2C+but+as+mentioned+earlier%2C+a+prudent+++approach+was+taken+that+assumed+minimal+experience+from+the+students.+++Although+each+course+should+be+assessed+on+the+basis+of+its+own+++particular+circumstances%2C+for+university+classes+in+Japan%2C+it+can+be+++difficult+to+carry+out+effective+needs+analysis+with+large+and+++non-elective+%28compulsory%29+courses.+++++%0D%0AQuestions+three%2C+four%2C+and+five+were+designed+to+see+how+the+students+++actually+found+the+tasks.+Although+the+majority+of+students+%2851%25%29+only+++found+the+tasks+%22a+little+difficult%22%2C+a+significant+number+%2841%25%29+said+++that+working+with+members+from+another+class+was+%22too+difficult%22.++From+++class+observations%2C+the+main+factors+for+this+seemed+to+be+slow+or+even+++no+replies+from+their+partners%2C+combined+with+the+time+constraints+of+++the+project.+In+addition+however%2C+a+combined+average+of+38%25+thought++that++working+with+others+was+%22interesting%22++and+16%25%2C+even+%22fun%22.+++++%0D%0AThe+remaining+questions+were+again+more+suitable+for+an+initial+needs+++analysis.+However%2C+they+were+included+as+part+of+the+post-course+++feedback++I+needed+for+my+work+towards+this+paper.+The+results+show+that+++the+majority+of+students+had+never+used+HTML+%2875%25%29%2C+and+indeed%2C+had++not++heard+of+it+%2859%25%29.+Almost+half+however+said+they+would+like+to++learn++how+to+use+it+to+make+more+sophisticated+web+pages.+These+results++need++to+be+clarified+before+any+conclusions+about+their+significant++can+be++made.+Possible+explanations+include+a+genuine+interest+in++learning+HTML%2C++or+that+they+would+like+to+do+more+work+with+web+pages++per+se.+++++%0D%0AHalf+the+students+also+said+that+they+thought+learning+how+to+make+web+++pages+was+%22useful%22+or+even+%22very+useful%22%2C+and+43%25+thought+that+it+%22may+++be+useful%22.++These+results+seem+to+show+the+high+levels+of+motivation+++associated+with+web+based+material.+++++%0D%0AFor+the+final+section%2C+students+identified+%22using+English%22+as+the+++greatest+problem+during+the+project%2C+which+may+reflect+the+fact+that+++they+had+not+chosen+to+study+English.+Because+the+course+is+a+compulsory+++part+of+their+majors+%28mostly+business+or+economics%29%2C+English+is+not+++their+speciality%2C+and+is+therefore+at+a+relatively+low+level.+The+other+++significant+problems+came+from+difficulties+in+finding+information%2C+and+++of+learning+how+to+use+Netscape+Composer.+The+former+may+be+partly+due+++to+experience%2C+but+also+because+of+difficulties+with+having+to+use+++English.+++++%0D%0AWith+regard+to+collecting+feedback%2C+the+set+nature+of+the+course+++schedule+dictated+that+the+projects+run+at+least+up+to+if+not+beyond+the+++Christmas+period.+Consequently%2C+other+than+the+questionnaire%2C+there++was++little+time+to+collect+adequate+feedback+from+the+students.++Ideally%2C+I++would+have+hoped+to+find+out+more+details+as+to+why+the++students++answered+as+they+did.+Particular+areas+I+would+like+to+have++focused+on%2C++would+have+been+to+clarify+why+they+found+working+with++others+too++difficult%2C+and+why+the+project+was+interesting+for+them%2C+and++why+they++would%2C+or+would+not%2C+like+to+learn+HTML.+The+additional++information++could+then+be+used+as+a+basis+for+designing+the+next+web++design+project.+++++%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3C%2Fdiv%3E%0D%0A%3Cdiv+class%3D%22chapter%22%3E%0D%0A++++%3Ch3%3E%0D%0AConclusion%3C%2Fh3%3E%0D%0AThe+problems++that+students+had+working+with+group+members+from+another++class+seemed++to+result+from+the+timing+between+the+different+classes++schedules%2C+and++because+the+students+simply+were+not+used+to+working+and++collaborating++to+such+a+level.+For+future+projects+I+will+set+up+the++groups+and++partnerships+at+the+very+start+of+the+course%2C+and+give+minor+++pre-project+collaborative+tasks+in+order+to+sensitise+the+students+to+++collaborative+work%2C+and+to+the+sending+and+replying+of+messages.++++%0D%0AEarlier+the+advantages+of+introducing+HTML+into+the+class+were+++considered.+The+feedback+questions+regarding+the+use+of+HTML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